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郭松民:把陈纳德捧得这么高,不仅是一种犯贱式的自作多情,更是一种文化上的认贼作父

作者:郭松民  来源:老兵生活服务圈

  二十世纪九十年代以来,一些在中国新民主主义革命过程中与中共亲密合作的国际友人如白求恩、阳早、寒春等一一被解构,逐步“走下神坛”,与此同时,一个曾与国民党密切合作美国人——陈纳德,却逐步走上神坛。

  他被称为英雄、义士,他的铜像、纪念碑在他曾经“战斗”过的地方一一被树立起来,他的形象频繁出现在银幕、电视荧屏上。

  许多年轻网民视他为偶像,在新建立的历史叙述中,他义薄云天、匹马单枪,把中国从日军的轰炸下解救了出来。

  关于陈纳德的一切,真的就是如此美好吗?

  当然不是!

  陈纳德今天这种通体灿然,高大完美的形象,是作为美化、道德化美国这一系统工程的一部分,被精心设计、重新粉刷的结果,为了美化陈纳德的形象,历史被悄悄的修改、遮蔽了。

  1949年8月5日,美国发表《美国与中国的关系》白皮书,毛主席为新华社写了四篇评论,在《别了,司徒雷登》一文中就直接揭露了陈纳德帮助蒋介石打内战的罪行:

  “美国的海陆空军已经在中国参加了战争。青岛、上海和台湾,有美国的海军基地。北平、天津、唐山、秦皇岛、青岛、上海、南京都驻过美国的军队。美国的空军控制了全中国,并从空中拍摄了全中国战略要地的军用地图。在北平附近的安平镇,在长春附近的九台,在唐山,在胶东半岛,美国的军队或军事人员曾经和人民解放军接触过,被人民解放军俘虏过多次。陈纳德航空队曾经广泛地参战。美国的空军除替蒋介石运兵外,又炸沉了起义的重庆号巡洋舰。所有这些,都是直接参战的行动……

  上个世纪五十年代初,《人民日报》曾发表过《陈纳德空运队屠杀中国人民的证据》、《美军曾恣意凌辱劫掠我同胞,昆明市民愤怒控诉并揭发空中强盗陈纳德罪行》等报道,现在网上已经找不到了。

  1979年版《辞海》对陈纳德的记述:

  “……1937年来华任国民党政府航空委员会顾问,后组织‘美国自愿航空队’,1942年,改为美国第十四航空队,任少将队长。1946年在华组织‘民用航空公司’旋改称‘行政院救济总署空运队’,包运‘救济物资’并走私贩毒,猎取暴利;蒋介石发动内战后,帮蒋空运军队、武器,侦察和轰炸解放区,屠杀中国人民。 新中国成立后,他继续在台湾进行活动,并在香港英国的庇护下,强夺中国两个航空公司的巨额财产。”(缩写本431页)。

  1999年再版的《辞海》,把陈纳德词条中“包运‘救济物资’”以后记述陈纳德罪行的文字,全部删除了!(1999年版531页)

  一方面,对人民领袖、对“狼牙山五壮士”、邱少云、黄继光、雷锋、刘胡兰这样的革命英雄,用一种鸡蛋里挑骨头的耐心,一定要找出他们的毛病来,证明他们“是人不是神”;另一方面,对陈纳德,以及其背后的蒋介石等历史早有定评的负面人物,又千方百计的加以美化,甚至伪造英雄事迹,证明他们“是神不是人”,这就是这些年来中国主流知识界干的事情。

  那么陈纳德究竟是一个什么样的人呢?

  陈纳德的前半生,可谓乏善可陈。他在美军中郁郁不得志,由于在派系倾轧中失利,1937年被迫从陆军航空队退役。这一年,陈纳德44岁,军衔不过是上尉,耳朵有点聋,身体也有病,未来的生活前景看上去是如此暗淡无光。

  这样的情况下,陈纳德此前结识的在国民党空军中具有重要影响力的毛邦初(蒋介石原配夫人毛福梅的侄子)向他伸出了援助之手,把他推荐给时任中国航空委员会秘书长的宋美龄。一向迷信美国人,并对美国人怀有特殊亲近感的宋美龄向陈纳德发出邀请:月薪1000美元;另有津贴、汽车、飞机、译员;包往返路费,只求他来担任为期三个月的顾问。

  如果按照消费指数计算,三十年代的月薪1000美元,今天约略相当于一份年薪百万的工作,面对如此优厚的条件,陈纳德动心了,从此开始了在中国长达近二十年的“冒险+淘金”生涯。

  由于国民党的腐败、蒋介石的疏于备战和宋美龄的愚而好自用,国民党空军在全面抗战爆发后不久就消耗殆尽。1941年,陈纳德接受国民党政府的委托,前往美国招募飞行员,组建了闻名遐迩的“飞虎队”。

  当时日美关系已极度紧张,处于开战前夜,考虑到中国将能够在未来的日美战争中助美国一臂之力,罗斯福政府对这次招募活动持支持态度。陈纳德获准以私人机构名义,重金招募飞行员和地勤机械师,以平民身份参战。1941年8月飞虎队成立时,他招募到至少110名飞行员、150名机械师和其他一些后勤人员。

  从任何角度看,“飞虎队”都不是今天主流媒体所描述的是一群不怕艰苦、不怕流血牺牲援助中国抗战的“国际主义战士”,而是国民政府花了重金聘请的雇佣兵。

  根据国民政府与美国飞行员签订的合同,飞虎队飞行员的薪酬极为惊人:普通飞行员的月薪600美元,小队长月薪650美元,中队长月薪700美元。另外每击落一架日机有500美元奖金。

  这一薪金标准远远超过了美军飞行员。1942年,美国陆军航空队在前线的飞行员月薪最多也只有347美元,一架战斗机的价格也不过一万多美元。

  如果把这一薪水用1937年前尚未贬值的法币折算,飞虎队每个普通飞行员的收入约合法币2000元。当时国军空军军衔最高的上校飞行员,月薪也只合法币600元,普通的少尉飞行员的月薪只合法币100元。

  考虑到后来法币大幅度贬值,而飞虎队飞行员都是用美元支付薪酬,中美飞行员之间的收入差距是极其惊人的。当时美国仍未走出三十年代的大萧条,失业率很高,如此之高的薪酬是陈纳德能够招募到“国际主义战士”的重要原因,等到差不多一年之后飞虎队解散,改为“美国空军驻华特遣队”,原飞虎队员可自愿选择加入或不加入,但薪金改为按美军标准发放,大部分队员就选择返回美国了。

  飞虎队飞行员既然是为钱而来,所以无钱就罢工。在飞虎队存续期间发生过因为国民政府不能及时发放薪酬和奖金而拒绝升空作战的丑闻。

  飞虎队不仅薪酬水平高,生活方面也完全无视抗战时期极度困难的中国国情,其豪华奢靡也是当时普通中国人无法想象的。

  根据陈纳德提出的要求,国民政府“应给每个飞行员提供单人房……给全体人员提供分隔、独立的浴室及厕所……给每五十个人提供游戏娱乐房。这些房间应该有打牌桌、游戏桌或乒乓球桌。”宋美龄实际提供给这些人的是星级酒店服务。

  据飞虎队通讯员R.M.史密斯在《飞虎队日记:与陈纳德在一起》中记载,当他抵达昆明时:

  “房子又新又干净。餐桌上有白布……以及很不错的美式火腿、鸡蛋、咖啡。招待所里买得到骆驼牌香烟。浴室有淋浴和热水……二楼还有真正的酒吧……这里的生活太不费力……我把脏衣服扔在地上,服务员把它拿走,洗干净后再拿来,放在适当的衣柜里。我吃午饭或早饭时,两、三个中国佣人在给我洗车。”

  国民政府根据美国规定为这些雇佣兵提供高标准伙食:每人每日提供肉类(牛、猪或鸡)550克、鸡蛋4个、蔬菜620克、土豆310克、干菜60克、面粉380克、猪油60克、糖180克、盐15克、水果340克、花生30克、茶叶12克以及其他香料。

  这一标准在太平洋战争爆发,大批美军来华后依然延续,并成为各地的沉重负担:仅昆明一地的美军每天就要消费黄牛约100头。昆明一度将当地的黄牛全部宰杀以供应美军肉食,后来不得已改用水牛肉继续供给。直到后来连水牛也供应不上时,国民政府还设法为美军提供了不少牦牛肉。

  如此巨大的投入,战果如何呢?

  飞虎队1941年8月正式组成,队员原来大多为运输机、轰炸机飞行员,必须经过改装训练才能驾驶战斗机进行空战,因此直到1941年12月20日,即太平洋战争爆发后,飞虎队才第一次实际作战。到1942年7月4日飞虎队解散,共参战百余次。飞虎队自己的数字是击落、炸毁日机297架,自身损失51架。但根据当时日方战损资料看,飞虎队所取得的战果不会超过115架日本战机,其中还包括印缅战场上英国空军的战果,而自身则损失了80架战斗机。然而,国民政府对飞虎队的数字并没有提出异议,还是按照297架发放了奖金,并替飞虎队大肆宣传。

  有比较才能有鉴别。苏联政府承担支出的苏联志愿航空队于1937年11月开始来华参战,至1941年6月苏德战争爆发后离开,共计摧毁敌机195架。这期间,苏联向中国提供2.5亿美元低息贷款,先后向中国出售1285架飞机及其他作战物资。同一时期,美国正在向日本整船整船的出口石油和废钢铁。

  无论如何,陈纳德和飞虎队的队员们能够参与中国抗战,不管是为了钱也好,或者别的什么目的也好,我们对此心存感激,这没问题。但有几点必须讲清楚:

  第一、陈纳德回美国招募飞行员时,身份是当时中国政府雇员,飞虎队的全部空勤、地勤人员由中国政府发放薪酬,飞机和一切地面设施由中国政府购买,飞虎队在中国的作战行动接受中国军事当局指挥。所以飞虎队是,而且仅仅是中国政府的一支雇佣军!性质有点像今天的中国足球队高薪聘请的外援,和什么“美国援助中国”呀、“国际主义”呀什么的真没有什么太大关系;

  第二、因此,对陈纳德和飞虎队,过分的道德化、高尚化是不必要的,既然赚了我们的钱,就不要再赚我们的感激。一些人提到陈纳德就受宠若惊、感激涕零,则更是一种国际贱民心态;

  第三、飞虎队来华时,日美关系已极度恶化,战争一触即发。飞虎队正式参战则是在珍珠港事件之后。这就是说,美国政府为中国在美招募飞行员,组建飞虎队开绿灯,已经有了借助中国力从太平洋西岸拖住日本的考虑,这真是一盘“大棋”。所以当时国民政府支持飞虎队,也是对美国的帮助。美国从来没有对此表示感激,但美国应该对此表示感激。

  抗战胜利后,蒋介石不旋踵即发动全面内战。陈纳德在中国内战中另有一番精彩表演,最终被毛主席点名,以“飞贼”的形象被载入史册。

  1941年12月7日,日本偷袭珍珠港。这是美国自日本明治时代以来近70年对日本采取“养寇侵华”,以便自己从中获利政策所受到的报应。

  太平洋战争爆发后,日军在西南太平洋和东南亚一度所向无敌,半年左右的时间里,共占领土地380万平方公里,人口1.5亿,消灭盟军30余万人,予美、英、荷海军以重创。1942年5月6日,美菲联军7万余人在巴丹投降,美国在海外唯一殖民地菲律宾沦陷。

  如果不是美国政府事先调走了麦克阿瑟,这位后来日本的太上皇很可能就成了日军俘虏。太平洋战场的严峻形势,使美国感到迫切需要加强中国战场的力量,以减轻自己的压力。

  美国决定向中国派驻正规的军事力量,组建不到一年的“飞虎队”完成历史使命,于1941年7月3日解散。次日,即美国独立日,宣告成立“美国空军驻华特遣队”,陈纳德担任准将司令。

  就个人而言,陈纳德成了珍珠港事变的最大受益者。短短几年时间里,陈纳德从一名郁郁不得志的退役上尉,一变而为威风凛凛的美军准将,第二年又晋升少将。他之所以能被罗斯福总统如此青睐,主要是因为后者看中了他在中国的“人脉”——与宋美龄、蒋介石的亲密关系。

  初次见到宋美龄,陈纳德就断言“她是我的公主”。的确,宋美龄具有给外国人而不是中国人带来好运气的神秘能力,她是陈纳德的“贵人”,陈纳德遇到她之后就时来运转,因此也对她和蒋介石忠心耿耿。

  从雇佣军性质的“飞虎队”,到由正规美军组成的“美国空军驻华特遣队”/“第十四航空队”,这是不是就可以说,是美国向中国提供了单方面的帮助,中国要为此知恩图报,结草衔环了呢?

  也不是。准确的说,是美国帮助了中国的抗日战争,中国帮助了美国的太平洋战争。无疑,“美国空军驻华特遣队”/“第十四航空队”的进驻,有利于中国抗战,但同时中国向美国提供空军基地和后勤保障,使美军可以从中国大陆打击日本,也有利于策应美军在太平洋战场的战斗。

  中美双方,帮助是相互的,感恩也应该是相互的。任何单方面的以救星自居或自感被拯救而受宠若惊,都是滥情,都是错误的。

  1945年7月,由于和驻华美军司令魏德迈中将相互倾轧并且失利,陈纳德再次辞职,抗战胜利前夕怀着失意的心情离开中国。但回到美国后,陈纳德心情更加沮丧:他和妻子分居多年,关系冷若冰霜,孩子都已成人离家,他只好一个人过着寂寞、清冷的生活。

  陈纳德对美国已感到陌生,这里没有人授予他特权,更没有人追捧和崇拜他,称他为“飞将军”,他在美国度日如年。此时他的一位好友魏劳尔打算在中国开办航空公司,很想利用陈纳德在国民党上层的老关系,于苦无出路的陈纳德和他一拍即合。

  1945年12月,陈纳德重返中国。他的“公主”宋美龄及蒋介石再次成为他的幸运之星,在宋、蒋的支持下,陈纳德和国民政府行政院善后救济总署联合成立“行总空运队”(后改为中国民航空运公司),开始了生意兴隆的“民用运输”事业,但在蒋介石发动全面内战的背景下,陈纳德的“民用运输”很快就变成了“军事运输”。

  1947年下半年,人民解放军开始转入战略反攻,国民党军队逐渐被分割在若干个互不相连的战略区、以及大、中城市中,地面交通基本被解放军切断,空运的重要性陡然增加。在蒋介石的要求下,陈纳德的民航空运公司变成了国民党军联勤总部的特别空运队,他不仅要给被围困的部队运送军火、粮食和药品,而且还负责运走金银财宝、文物、机器以及国民党的重要军政官员。

  辽沈、平津、淮海战役进行期间,陈纳德的民航空运公司在沈阳、北平、徐州等被我军包围的城市穿梭飞行。辽沈战役中,民航空运公司曾进行了平均每天50航次的大规模空中运输,创造在24小时内运进东北包围圈21.9万吨军用和民用物资的纪录。在临汾等地的作战中,陈纳德的空运队还以对解放军阵地直接投下照明弹的方式帮助国民党军。

  1948年夏,山西国民党军阎锡山部在晋中战役中被解放军击败,残部退守太原。解放军兵临城下,太原战役即将打响。这时陈纳德飞抵太原,阎锡山大感振奋。他在柳巷正大饭店设宴招待陈纳德,并破了不喝酒的惯例,与陈纳德频频举杯。为了表示与太原共存亡的决心,阎锡山还将他准备“自杀”之用的毒药拿出来给陈纳德看。这一戏剧性的夸张姿态令陈纳德大为动容,他拿出相机拍了下来,后来刊登在上海《大美晚报》上。

  陈纳德在太原与阎锡山签订了空运协定。根据协定,民航空运公司从北平(1948年底北平和平解放后改从青岛)向太原空运军火,包括美制化学炮弹和凝固汽油弹、通信器材、药品和医疗器械、粮食等,返程则运走阎锡山盘踞山西多年搜括来的金银财宝及贵重物品。

  陈纳德返回上海后,立即对向太原的空运业务作了紧急部署。从8月到10月,“民航空运公司”向太原空运了10余万枚炮弹、2500万发子弹、500支卡宾枪、20万颗手榴弹、5吨炸药、51余部无线电发报机、20余部报话两用机及其他一些通讯器材和药品,大大增强了太原国民党守军的抵抗能力。

  1948年10月,太原战役打响后,空投成为阎锡山获取粮弹补给的惟一来源。太原是大城市,每天至少需要20万斤粮食。陈纳德从青岛向太原组织空投,一架飞机一天一般只能往返一次,装载3吨粮食。当时,国民党空军忙于撤逃,顾不上救援本是“杂牌”的阎锡山,于是从空中向被包围的阎锡山部提供补给的任务几乎全部由陈纳德的民航空运公司承担,在整个太原战役期间,陈纳德共向太原空运了2500余万斤粮食。

  在太原战役打得烽火连天的日子里,阎锡山的会客厅一直挂着一张陈纳德的大幅彩色照片,陈纳德已经成了“太原保卫战”的精神支柱。阎锡山逃台后回忆说:

  “几个月间,我们每天都靠着太原上空的美国飞机的轰鸣声生活。我对共产党的炮声或者枪声并不感到特别烦恼,因为我确信我们能守住。但是如果我不能听到飞机声,那么我就感到十分担忧。飞机意味着大米。大米意味着城市的生存。”

  和解放战争时我军攻克锦州用7天,攻克济南用9天,攻克天津用29小时相比,太原战役可谓漫长,整整打了六个月(当然,这其中有我统帅部为策应平津战役放缓攻击步伐的因素)!甚至在南京解放,阎锡山已经逃离太原之后,太原守军仍在顽抗。在整个太原战役中,解放军攻城部队共计伤亡4.5万人,是解放战争中战斗最激烈、付出代价最大的城市攻坚战。在牺牲的解放军战士中,有多少死于陈纳德运过去的军火,已经很难统计,但应该不在少数吧?

  陈纳德并不满足于仅仅为阎锡山提供补给,他还急不可耐地计划直接参战。陈纳德和魏劳尔一起制订一份名曰“示威方案”的行动计划,其内容是:由民航空运公司的美国飞行员驾驶国民党空军轰炸机,从西安出发,向太原外围的解放军阵地大量投掷凝固汽油弹,陈纳德信心满满可以凭借如此残酷的战争手段一举解除太原之围。只是因为国民党大势已去,从来都是让别人为自己火中取栗的美国当局否决了陈纳德的计划。

  陈纳德于1949年5月与中央情报局搭上了关系。此时中国大部分地区已经解放。陈纳德的飞机以冲绳、东京和汉城等为基地起飞,按照中央情报局的指令向中国大陆撒传单、空投特务和武器弹药等,支援国民党军残余和匪特武装。陈纳德还参与了蒋介石向台湾抢运黄金的行动,共计从大陆运走黄金93万两。

  新中国成立后,陈纳德最大的一件劣迹是抢夺中国“两航”的财产。

  “两航”是指原国民党政府所有的中国航空公司和中央航空公司。1949年11月9日,已经迁至香港的“两航”宣布起义。当日清晨,这两家航空公司总经理刘敬宜、陈卓林率领12架飞机先行离港北飞,“两航”留港人员组成职工委员会,临时管理在香港的“两航”所有财产(包括各型飞机71架),等候北京中央人民政府接受。

  从任何意义上说,“两航”在香港及美国的全部资产,自起义之日起都已经属于新中国中央人民政府所有。

  陈纳德对与飞机有关的事情十分敏感。他一方面担心这71架飞机(其中大部分是大中型运输机)如果被解放军改装成轰炸机,那么将会使解放台湾的行动如虎添翼;另一方面,他也看到了这其中蕴藏着巨大发财机会。在“两航”起义的第二天,他就派魏劳尔赶赴台湾,向蒋介石提出由陈纳德的民航空运公司“买下”“两航”的产权,然后再向港英当局申请扣押停放在香港启德机场上的71架飞机。蒋介石对陈纳德出手相助十分感激,一口答应依计而行,“出售”他已根本无权出售的“两航”产权。

  随后,陈纳德以这笔不合法的交易为依据,派魏劳尔带人来到启德机场,强行接管“两航”财产,并拆下“两航”飞机的轮胎,甚至扬言要用卡车堵住机场跑道,阻止这批飞机飞往大陆,这是赤裸裸的流氓手段加强盗行径。

  经过历时三年多的诉讼,并在美国政府的施压下,陈纳德在英国法庭上“打赢”了这场旷日持久的官司,劫夺了“两航”财产。陈纳德对此非常得意,把这一“胜利”看作是他一生中与创建飞虎队和指挥第14航空队同样重要的第三件大事。但这毫无疑问是对新中国的犯罪,也是对中国人民的劫掠。

  从陈纳德1945年12月重返中国到1954年“两航”胜诉,在这9年间对中国人民犯下累累罪行,在解放战争中甚至双手沾满了人民鲜血。1958年,陈纳德因肺癌在美国逝世。

  有意思的是,目前主流关于陈纳德历史的所有叙述,对他1945年之后的行迹都遮遮掩掩,语焉不详,似乎不是陈纳德犯了罪而是自己犯了罪。

  

  对陈纳德盖棺论定。

  在1945年之前,他先后作为中国国民政府的雇佣兵和美军驻华人员参与了中国抗战,虽然其出发点无非是金钱和美国利益,但基本可以肯定。1945年之后,陈纳德则果断地站到了反共反人民的蒋介石政权一方,其敌视新中国的立场至死未变。

  现在有关方面把陈纳德捧得这么高,令他铜像巍巍,高入云表,成为“青少年教育”的典范,试问这是要把青少年都教育成反共分子吗?在我看来,这不仅是一种犯贱式的自作多情,更是一种文化上的认贼作父!

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2017/10/29

旧文章ID:15848

Death of Baby in Stolen Car—A Case Analysis Through Weibo

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作者:Julie Wu  来源:US-China Perception Monitor

A car theft in Changchun city in Jilin province on Monday, March 4 incited a mass movement in search for a baby that was left in the stolen car. The actual theft occurred at approximately 7:20 am, when the owners of the vehicle returned from inside a super market to find their car gone—along with their 2-month-old baby whom they had left in the car. The call for online assistance began on Sina Weibo, China’s popular microblog akin to Twitter, with a missing persons tweet from Central News in the afternoon of March 4:

[blockquote3]“#Looking for missing person# [Baby lost for nearly 10 hours]: A two-month-old baby boy placed in a stolen car has been missing for nearly 10 hours in Changchun. Highway authorities from Jilin province have searched toll booths within 200 kilometers of the crime scene, but to no avail. Many are now investigating underground parking lots. The stolen car’s license plate is AMM102; the baby boy is wrapped in a red floral blanket, with a birthmark on his left shoulder. The baby is too young and in need of breastfeeding; he is probably hungry by now. Everyone please spread out and [help] find the baby as soon as possible.”  (March 4) [/blockquote3]

What ensued on Weibo consisted of re-tweets of details about the incident and real time updates, as well as messages that hopefully, if read by the suspect, would encourage him to return the baby unharmed as quickly as possible. The emphasis on the safety of the baby over any threat or punishment for the thief was a call of conscience shared by many. Many prominent public figures including Chinese actress Yao Chen and musician Zuo Xiao Zu Zhou utilized their Weibo to pass along the message to their followers.

On March 5, at approximately 5 pm, suspect Zhu Xijun turned himself in to the police. The 48-year-old man confessed that he had strangled the baby to death approximately an hour after he first fled the crime scene, and buried the two-month-old infant in the snow.

While the public’s effort on Weibo did not directly result in the final arrest of the suspect, there have been other success stories (e.g. on March 4, a local woman from Wu’an who read a missing persons tweet on Weibo was able to connect with the “lost boy” that she had noticed on a local news broadcast and reunite the two-year-old boy with his parents). The power of social media as an effective way of reaching and gathering help from different corners of the country should not be underestimated.

However, not only did this tragic incident bring thousands of people together in mourning the death of the baby, it has also triggered thoughts and discussions surrounding China’s child protection laws, government actions, and waning morality.

In shaping China’s child protection laws

While some are sympathetic towards the family’s loss, others are questioning the parents’ irresponsibility in leaving their child unattended in the car. Some say that despite the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Minors, China is in need of more comprehensive child protection laws.

So far, there is no law in China that supports public prosecution of parents whose carelessness leads to the harm, loss, or death of their children. Wan Daqiang, a lawyer from Beijing Shangquan Law Firm commented that this consequently contributes to extra risks to children, as parents are less afraid of legal sanctions for their neglect.

In contrast, many laws and protection acts exist in the United States. Although child welfare laws vary from state to state, the federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) (42 U.S.C.A. § 5106g) defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum, “any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation” or “an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm.” The same case happening in the U.S. will have undoubtedly resulted in serious legal retribution for the parents.

Cases of child neglect are not uncommon in China; Beijing police said on Saturday, March 7 that they had rescued six lost children aged from 3 to 7 years old over the course of the week, all of whom were lost due to parental neglect. However, simply having new child protection laws in China will not make a significant difference if there is no strict enforcement—parents will probably be just as likely to leave their children unattended for convenience. Parents should not be prompted by laws or fear of retribution to act upon their children’s wellbeing.

Government actions vs. Weibo actions

Despite the timely response from local government and police forces, many on Weibo hinted at the inefficiency and ineffectiveness of the forces involved, as thousands of police and citizens were unable to locate the burial site of the child that was actually less than 40 km away from the initial crime scene.

During this time, some Chinese journalists posted a screenshot on Sina Weibo of a supposed order from the local propaganda department as to how to cover the event on Changchun media. Within the instructions given, journalists were told not to include front page coverage and to “keep the message positive… [with] no questioning of the police work…or any accusations of shortcomings.” Although the authenticity of the order was not verified, tweets with the screenshot were quickly censored and many on Weibo were dismayed with the government’s approach to censoring media outlets in maintaining its image.

On the other hand, some online users were critical of Weibo users’ own involvement in publicizing the search before the sensitive “48-hour period” concluded, a period after which the odds of solving a missing persons case decreases by 50% if a solid lead is not found. They believe that during this time, any collective action may trigger the suspect to act irrationally and kill the baby—if he hasn’t already. Consequently, some also wondered if the suspect’s decision to kill the baby was due to the public’s collective action and search for answer. Although this was dismissed when news confirmed that the suspect had strangled the baby hours before the call for public attention was first issued, many still question whether it is wise for the public to participate in the search.

Regardless of the opinions on the matter, Weibo users seemed to be unified in their condolences and discontent at the cruel society in which they live.

Tragedy in an immoral society

The death of an innocent baby in the Changchun incident is tragically reflective of a society’s waning morality.  Many on Weibo question the suspect’s cold-bloodedness and lack of human compassion—“you stole the car, that’s fine…but how can you bring yourself to take the life of an innocent baby who has yet to witness the coming of spring?” As lawyer Yuan Yulai tweeted, “…this society’s [concept of] reverence for life has become very foreign.” That is, people no longer regard the human life as something valuable. Surely, the parents were irresponsible in their actions, but society as a whole cannot divorce itself from its responsibilities. The incident, dubbed as “Case 304,” contrasts greatly with a similar event that occurred in Bronx, NY on February 5, 2013. In the Bronx case, the suspect contacted the police upon discovering the 8-month-old baby in the back of the stolen car. Although the suspect had time to flee, the baby girl was returned safely to her parents.

Amidst the online search for the baby, one car dealer company jumped at the marketing opportunity and tweeted:

[blockquote3]“Thoughts following the Changchun missing car and baby case: [you] can definitely consider purchasing a car with more advanced technology. Buick cars come with the OnStar GPS System, allowing the lockdown of a stolen vehicle at any time and place and automatically setting off the alarm. An easy heart and a piece of mind; if you are going to buy a car anyway, why not buy a Buick? …” (March 5) [/blockquote3]

In other words, if you buy a Buick car with its GPS system, the baby will never die! But this is not all.

One man swore that the public mourning for the loss of the baby is merely an attention-seeking act—“Complete hype!” he tweeted. The man even promised that if the story does not eventually unfold as hyped up by those involved, he will kneel in front of the Changchun train station for three days as an apology. Although he has kept his words (police found him kneeling outside of the train station soon after), the sheer distrust exhibited by this man and others brings about the question of what is more tragic—people utilizing this tragedy as an opportunity to garner publicity or the fact that it happens so frequently that people simply assume the broadcast of such an event is a hype for media attention?

The end of public outcry

The case is still under investigation, and the verdict for Zhu has not yet been handed down. However, while the incident received much attention from traditional and online media outlets during the search, the netizens on Weibo seem to have moved on to a different subject (powdered milk) since the body of the baby was discovered on March 6.

This is perhaps due to the fact that now that the search has concluded, the voice of the masses needed to be channeled elsewhere—other social, political, or economic issues. After all, in a country as large as China, there are many other concerns to be voiced, news to be shared, and stories to be told.

Another possibility as to why Weibo coverage of the event spiked and quickly waned is that there is a mob mentality behind posting on Weibo—once everyone else has moved on to another topic of conversation, you do not want to be the last one discussing an old topic. This is not to undermine the public’s shared genuine concern for the baby, but such emotions (along with curiosity as to how the case would conclude) can quickly lose their resonance. When the majority of the public has been given an answer to their question (that is, where the baby is and whether he is alive), few will remain for the follow-up (e.g. will this affect any child care policies and how to make sure the same tragedy does not happen again). At the end of the day, the masses are not directly affected by the outcome of the incident, which will sadly be just another cruel tragedy.

Famous businessman and renowned Angel Investor, Xue Manzi, summarized the event on his Weibo:

[blockquote3]“When Xiao Yue Yue[1] left, you said there is no indifference in Heaven; when the five children from Bijie[2] left, you said there is no coldness in Heaven; today, when little Hao Bo[3] also departed, you say there is no cruelty in Heaven … Every time a tragedy occurred, people are reviling, hating, reflecting, before [the tragedy] slowly fades, [is] overlooked, and forgotten…” (March 5) [/blockquote3]

It is unlikely for the Changchun tragedy alone to bring about any official changes to China’s child welfare protection law. However, as people reflect on what kind of society in which they live and any need for reform, hopefully the incident will continue to resonate with them such that if a similar situation were to occur again, the baby will at least be able to witness the seasons change.


[1] Wang Yue, also known as “Xiao Yue Yue,” was a two-year-old Chinese girl who was run over by two vehicles on the afternoon of October 13, 2011 in Foshan, Guangdong. As she lay bleeding on the road for more than seven minutes, at least 18 people walked around her body. The overwhelming apathy demonstrated by these passers-by later incited much public outrage.

[2] Five homeless children, found dead in a trash bin, died of carbon monoxide poisoning after starting a fire with charcoal inside the bin to warm themselves. The incident prompted scathing questions as to how the local government, teachers, family members, and society in general could have allowed the boys to end up in such a predicament.

[3] Hao Bo is the name of the two-month-old baby in the Changchun incident.

 

Written by Juehao (Julie) Wu. Julie Wu is an intern for the China Program at The Carter Center. She is a current third-year undergraduate student studying International Studies and Psychology at Emory University.

Photo: Locals hold a candlelight vigil for the two-month-old baby killed by a car thief in Changchun, the capital of northeast China’s Jilin province. / AFP

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2013/3/14

旧文章ID:15847

China’s Interaction with the World Economy

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作者:Camille McConaughey  来源:US-China Perception Monitor

On April 2nd, 2013, University of Oxford Professor Xiaolan Fu was invited to Emory University to present her views on China’s interaction with the world economy and the global economic recovery. The event was organized by the Halle Institute of Emory University in partnership with the Confucius Institute of Atlanta and the China Program of The Carter Center as part of Emory’s China Speaker Series.

According to Fu, over the past three decades, the landscape of the world’s economy has changed in part due to China’s integration with the global economy and the Chinese economy’s impressive growth. China’s share in both world imports and exports has multiplied by five since 1980, with its exports now reaching 11.3% of total world shares. China’s interaction with the world economy is done mainly through international trade, international direct investments, and innovation. Xiaolan Fu covered each of these aspects before addressing the important challenges that still lay ahead.

International trade

The majority of China’s products go to the U.S., Japan and Europe, as well as Hong Kong, the latter mostly being a platform from which products are re-exported. China’s main imports, however, come from Japan, South Korea and Taiwan, ahead of the U.S. and Germany. This import trend shows that China is integrated locally. On the other hand, the trade with ASEAN countries and Japan are ‘intermediate trade’ (the trading of components used to make final products), while the trade with the U.S. and Europe is a trade of final products. China’s role in this manufacturing process is mainly that of assembling imported pre-fabricated components and exporting final products. Its  value added is very limited.

Over the past three decades, China’s economic structure has undergone major changes: China’s economy transition went from being a resource-export oriented economy to a manufacturing-export oriented one, which heavily relies on imported resources. This structural change has had an impact on the whole world economy. According to Fu, this structural change affected the comparative advantage of all countries. Overall, the world’s pool of unskilled labor force has increased due to China’s opening up in the 1980’s. This surplus of unskilled labor has had an impact on prices; prices of manufactured goods decreased while that of commodities rose. China’s economic growth has also led to increased demands in specific fields such as machineries, technology, and resources, which has benefited hi-tech, developed states and resource-rich countries more than countries lacking complementary competitive advantages to  China.

International Direct Investments

In the 1990s, China was a major recipient  of foreign direct investment (FDI). Over the last ten years, however, China’s outward direct investments (ODI) have multiplied by five and China is now an important source for FDIs. The main destinations of China’s ODIs are Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan; the Virgin and Cayman Islands, Asia, Europe and  Africa (in order of ODI flow). China’s investments in Latin America are still limited.

Fu emphasized the fact that only 30% of the investments are spurred by state-owned entities while the rest come from the private sector. The majority of China’s ODI are manufacturing-related and not resource-oriented.

A survey that Fu conducted herself in China’s dynamic Guangdong region showed that Chinese entrepreneurs favor the U.S.  as a recipient of Chinese FDIs due to its exceptionally strong consumer market. Their desire for advanced knowledge drives Chinese investments to both the U.S. and the E.U.

The effects of China’s ODIs are different depending on the region. While China’s ODI flow to the U.S. and Africa helped increase competition in local markets, its effects on other middle-income countries are not significant, mainly because the investments in these countries are limited and usually resource oriented. According to Fu, the growth effect of FDI in host economies has an impact on direct financing, job creation, knowledge transfer and spillover as well as competition, all of which are important drivers for economic growth. She further emphasized that jobs are created due to the fact that China tends to create factories (which produce new jobs) instead of acquiring firms (especially in developing countries).

International Innovation Collaboration

Fu addressed international innovation collaboration by stressing how fundamental innovation is for long-term development. Even though it is a late comer in this field, China has significantly increased its Research & Development (R&D) efforts over the past ten years. China is now the world’s third largest R&D investor.

The Chinese Government’s increased openness and participation in international collaboration is seen by Fu as a potential sign of China’s willingness to take the path of innovation rather than copying. This drive for innovation, however, is made difficult by China’s current educational system—one of China’s bottlenecks—which promotes learning by rote memorization instead of encouraging creativity and critical thinking.

Chinese collaboration with international actors is still very shallow, mainly due to a lack of trust. Distrust is usually spurred by technological inequality leading the more advanced party to be suspicious of the other’s intentions. Many foreign firms are still worried over the potential theft of intellectual property and reverse-engineering. This general perception that China lacks Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protection does not help to create an environment in which trust can easily be established.

Even though China has adopted IPR legislative measures, the problem now lies in the implementation of these laws. The competition between different Chinese local administrative entities trying to defend their own interests also poses an additional barrier to the implementation of IPR-related laws. Other barriers, such as language and cultural differences, also present an obstacle to deepening international collaboration.

On the other hand, Fu pointed out that foreign companies have a lot to learn from Chinese firms’ capabilities in how they position themselves in markets, how they identify strategic sectors, how Chinese firms are organized and their approach to cost management.

Challenges Ahead

Fu reminded the audience that the way forward cannot be expected to be flat and smooth. As China has integrated into the world economy, trade disputes have increased and the trade environment for Chinese firms has deteriorated. China also faces internal problems: it needs to change its own economic structure, which is not viable on the long term. China needs to upgrade its economic system from being labor intensive to technology intensive, and combat the stigma of being a low quality manufacturing country. China also  needs to reform the role of the State within its economic system.

Another challenge for China is to increase consumption amongst its population, which is hard to implement due to the Chinese tendency to have a high savings ratio. China’s failure to increase consumption is partly due to the unbalanced welfare redistribution and the poor healthcare system. Without guarantees for their future, Chinese citizens are forced to save their money, instead of spending it.

Fu concluded the event by pointing out the emergence of a middle-class in China, and said she hopes this new middle-income class will become a driver for future economic developments and maybe even for more democracy?

 

Compiled by Camille McConaughey. Camille is an intern with the China Program at The Carter Center. She is a recent graduate in International Relations at the French Oriental Language and Civilization Institute in Paris.

Photo: Piles of containers at Waigaoqiao Container Port are seen in Shanghai, China. / AP

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2013/4/8

旧文章ID:15846

王绍光:大豆的故事——资本如何危及人类安全

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作者:王绍光  来源:开放时代

大豆对于中国人来说是一种耳熟能详的作物。它本身对人类的存在具有重要意义。大豆是人类拥有的一种含有高营养价值的原始作物,尤其对物质贫乏的发展中国家而言,这种食品的营养价值显得更加珍贵。同时,大豆是世界上最大的植物蛋白质来源,大豆类产品(鲜豆、豆芽、豆腐、豆奶等等)是亚洲饮食的基石,而大豆油是消费量最大的植物油,大约构成了世界食用油产量的一半;豆类食物不但占据着世界食物产量60%以上的份额,而且在蛋类、家禽、猪肉、羊羔肉、牛肉和鱼类生产的饲料方面均是首选。大豆不仅富含蛋白质,而且价格相对低廉,这些都是大豆这种食物资源的优势,足见其重要性。

一、大豆简史——中国由大豆出口国到进口国的转变

大豆的生产最早可以追溯到公元前11世纪。从那时起,中国就已经种植大豆了。直到二战时期,中国一直是世界上大豆生产量最高的国家,约占据世界大豆产量的90%。大豆在中国种植收获了不错的产量,中国的亚洲邻居(韩国、日本、印度尼西亚、菲律宾、越南、泰国、缅甸、尼泊尔和北印度)也开始种植大豆;在欧洲,大约是18世纪上半叶有了大豆的种植;在美国,1765年大豆首次被当作“中国的野豌豆”(Chinese vetches)介绍到北美殖民地,直到20世纪40年代,大豆农业才在美国真正起飞,美国在接下来的五十年中主导了世界大豆生产。从图1可以看出,1961年时,美国生产的大豆已占世界总量的68.7%;而居第二的中国,大豆产量份额跌至23.3%。不过,那时其它国家生产的大豆加在一起也才8%。从20世纪60年代后期到70年代,大豆农业在拉丁美洲飞速发展起来。1974年巴西的产量超过了中国,1998年阿根廷的产量也超过了中国,2002年巴西和阿根廷的总产量又超过了美国。到2011年,中国大豆产量占世界总产量的比重仅仅只有5.55%,而美国的份额是31.88%,巴西的份额是28.67%,阿根廷的份额是18.73%,就连本来不怎么生产大豆的其它国家,份额也达到历史新高15.16%,其中印度的产量达到1228.2万吨,比2004年几乎翻了一番,相当于中国产量的85%。也许再过几年,印度的大豆产量也会超过中国。

图1:1961年-2011年世界大豆产量分布

"1961年-2011年世界大豆产量分布"

资料来源:联合国粮农组织网站,http://faostat.fao.org/

有数据显示,中国的大豆消费量在逐年攀升(见图2)。1964年消费量不到八百万吨,到2010年已经跃升到近七千万吨。随着人们生活水平的提高,这个数字还将继续上升。与消费量迅猛增长形成鲜明对比的是中国大豆的生产量,从1964年到2010年基本没有太大的变化,巅峰时期也不到1700多万吨,比1964年翻了区区一倍。2010年中国大豆的生产量是不到1500万吨,而消费量却高达7000万吨,这中间的差值只能依赖进口。

图2:1964年-2011年中国的大豆生产、消费与进口(单位:百万吨)

"1964年-2011年中国的大豆生产、消费与进口(单位:百万吨)"

资料来源:Earth Policy Institute,http://www.earth-policy.org/data_center/C24

1964年中国大豆基本不需要进口,这种情况一直持续到20世纪90年代中期。其后,大豆进口迅速增长,到2011年,中国进口大豆占消费的比重已经达高达80%以上(图3)。2012年,中国进口了5838万吨的大豆,比上年增加1.53%,其中绝大部分都是转基因的大豆,主要来自于美国、巴西和阿根廷。从全球大豆交易来看,一直到90年代中期,中国市场还微不足道;到20世纪最后两年,中国市场的份额才超过10%。然而,从那时以后,在短短十几年时间里,中国市场的比重呈跨越性增长。现在,世界大豆出口总量的60%都涌向中国市场(图4),中国已经成为了世界上最大的大豆进口国。

图3:1964年-2011年中国大豆进口量与进口大豆占消费的比重

"1964年-2011年中国大豆进口量与进口大豆占消费的比重"

资料来源:Earth Policy Institute,http://www.earth-policy.org/data_center/C24

图4:1964年-2010年中国大豆进口量占世界出口量的比重

"1964年-2010年中国大豆进口量占世界出口量的比重"

资料来源:Earth Policy Institute, http://www.earth-policy.org/data_center/C24

2010年,荷兰的拉博银行发表了一份报告,题为《全球食品供应链的可持续性与安全性》(Sustainability and security of the global food supply chain)。根据该报告,中国从世界各地进口冷冻鱼、羊毛、棕榈油、棉花等各种农产品,但最大宗的农产品交易是来自阿根廷、巴西和美国的大豆,三者的总价值达二百亿美元左右。

从上面简短的描述中,我们看到了一幅近似沧海桑田般的变化:曾经占据世界产量90%的大豆王国,而进入20世纪之后,相继被美国和拉美的巴西、阿根廷等国家超越,并在过去15年里变成了一个严重依赖进口的国家。也许有人会认为,这是因为国内产量跟不上日益膨胀的消费需求。但近年来从报章新闻中,我们得知,国内的豆农日子很难过,他们往往为大豆卖不出合理价钱发愁,并不得不一而再、再而三地减少大豆种植面积。这样一来,人们不禁要问,为什么国产的大豆打不过进口的大豆?到底是什么导致了这种令人匪夷所思的变化?

二、资本介入大豆产供销链条——大豆由食物到商品的转变

在整个经济领域中,农业对资本主义生产和积累的逻辑有较强的抵制。前面也提到过,直到20世纪,中国一直是大豆生产的第一大基地,而当时国家之间很少有大豆贸易。引起之后大豆生产区域和大豆贸易巨大变化的,正是跨国资本的介入。以日本的三井物产、丹麦的宝隆洋行(East Asiatic Company)、俄国犹太裔商人创办的罗曼•卡巴尔金父子公司(R. M. Kabalkin and Son,Inc.)等为代表,它们于1908年开启了向欧洲出口大豆的贸易,大豆因此吸引了全世界的关注。有了资本介入以后,大豆就不再是单纯的食物,而是变为商品。

大豆吸引资本介入有其自身的原因。资本从来不会以物品本身的性质来为其定性,而是把它们视作贸易的标的。在资本的逻辑里,大豆不再是一种富含蛋白质、能够提供食用油的人类生活必需品,而是一种能够为资本家谋取利益的商品。的确,大豆对资本的最大诱惑在于它适合于资本密集地大规模栽培。不管是在中国东北,还是在其它地方,到大豆产地看到的往往是一望无际的大田作业。目前世界上的大豆生产集中在四个国家,即美国(40%以上)、巴西(25%左右)、阿根廷(15%左右)与中国(6%左右)。四国的产量达到全球产量的近九成。其它国家(如印度、加拿大、巴拉圭)也生产大豆,但它们各自的产量不大。而大豆及其产品(豆油与作为饲料的豆粕)的消费遍布全球,没有哪个国家可以完全摆脱对它的消费。由于大豆只在有限几个国家生产,只有经过大规模的跨国贸易,亿万生活在其它国家的人们才能消费大豆与大豆制品。

这样一来,大豆的产供销链条变得很长,从资本投入到种植、到贸易、到加工、再到消费,产供销链变得层次越来越多,越来越复杂。对资本家来说,从链条的每一级抽取利润都是可能的。本文关心的重点因此不是大豆本身,而是与大豆相关的各利益群体,看大豆与大豆产品是如何经过这些群体生产出来的?也看在此过程中,资本主义的生产关系是如何被不断复制出来的?

三、跨国公司——大豆供应链的实际控制者

(一)跨国公司和资本

在这个复杂的大豆供应链条上,是谁在起控制作用呢?是谁在产豆国(美国、巴西、阿根廷)与消费国(中国以及世界其它各国)之间做大豆贸易呢?又是谁控制了把大豆加工成豆油与豆粕的过程?豆农、贸易商、加工者和消费者之间是什么样的关系?要回答这些问题,最关键的是要明确资本在大豆产供销链条中扮演了什么角色、居于何种位置。如图6所示,在数以百万计的豆农与数以十亿计的消费者之间存在着长长的大豆产供销链条,而在这个链条里的每个环节上都有跨国公司的渗透,包括对农业投入(如种子、农药、化肥、农机)、贸易、加工、零售等环节的投资。更值得注意的是,这些跨国公司谋求的往往不仅仅掌控某个环节,而是上下通吃,不放过产供销链条上任何一个环节,目的是谋取利润最大化。

图5:大豆的供应链

"大豆的供应链"

图6:大豆产供销链条中资本的角色和位置

"大豆产供销链条中资本的角色和位置"

跨国公司何以能够成为控制大豆产供销链条的主体呢?说到底就是因为它们自身拥有雄厚的资本,并且能够轻易地从各国银行获得进一步融资,这样的能力是个人经济体、普通公司甚至是一些小的国家都不可比拟的。资本是助推世界大豆产供销一体化的关键因素。由于具备这些优势,在大豆产供销链条的每一个环节(基因、种子、农药、化肥、贸易、加工、分销以及零售)上,少数几个跨国公司就足以形成对全球市场的垄断控制。而这些跨国公司追求的只有一样东西:为资本的所有者谋取最高额的利润。

这些跨国公司与全球金融体系是密不可分的。在全球金融市场上,拥有雄厚资金的投资者(包括大公司、机构投资者、退休基金、信托、银行)可以于数秒内在世界范围内动用数以万亿美元计的资金,寻求最快和最高的回报。近年来,国际流动性十分充裕,但金融市场相当滞怠。为了追求稳固的长期投资收益,金融投资者将大量资本投入全球食物生产和农产品贸易。这使得一些经营农产品的跨国公司很容易筹得海量资金。利用这些资金,这些跨国公司可以开启新业务,可以收购国内较小规模的公司,可以到世界各国收购大量公司,也可以并购大型竞争者。这一切都有助于这些跨国公司扩大自己的实力,从而强化它们对大豆产供销链条各个环节的控制。

(二)大豆产供销领域的五大跨国公司

在这些跨国公司中,主要有五家大型公司控制了全球的大豆产供销链条。它们分别是:

孟山都(Monsanto,美国公司),成立于1902年,总资产在2011年为198.44 亿美元,是世界最大的种子公司和一个主要化学杀虫剂生产商,在2011年《财富》世界500强中排名第234位。它在66个国家运作,有22000名雇员。

ADM(Archer Daniels Midland,美国公司),成立于1902年,总资产在2012年为415.53 亿美元,是世界最大的大豆加工商,也是全球最大的农产品贸易和加工商之一,在2010年《财富》世界500强名单中排名第27位。它在75个国家运作,有30000名雇员。

邦吉(Bunge,美国公司),成立于1818年,总资产在2011年为232.75亿美元,是居于领导地位的全球大豆出口商和全球最大的农产品交易和加工公司之一,在2010年《财富》世界500强公司的名单中排名第172位。它于2001年秋上市,此前是非上市的私人公司。它在40个国家运作,有32000名雇员。

嘉吉(Cargill,美国公司),成立于1865年,是世界上最大的非上市私人公司,总资产在2012年为625.8亿美元,是世界上最大的大宗产品交易商。假如它是上市公司,嘉吉将被排进《财富》世界500强企业的前十位。它在66个国家运作,有142000名雇员。

路易•达孚(Louis Dreyfus,法国公司),成立于1851年,也是世界上最大的大宗产品交易商之一。由于它是非上市的私人公司,不必公布相关信息,其总资产规模不详,2010年的销售规模为460亿美元。它在55个国家运作,有34000名雇员。

在种子和生产所需的其他原材料投入方面,占主导地位的是孟山都公司;而在种植、贸易和加工方面,占主导地位的是ADM、邦吉、嘉吉和路易•达孚等四家公司,简称ABCD四大粮商。换句话说,这五家跨国公司几乎控制了大豆供应链的所有环节(图7)。

图7:谁控制了全球大豆产供销链条?

"大豆产供销链条"

而为这五大跨国集团提供资金支持的国际债权人有很多,包括荷兰的荷兰银行、荷兰商业银行、拉博银行;法国的巴黎银行、里昂银行、法兴银行、法国农业银行;美国的美洲银行、花旗集团、摩根大通集团;德国的商业银行、德意志银行;以及瑞士信贷集团、英国汇丰银行、意大利联合银行等很多世界著名投资银行。有了这些投资机构的资金支持,这五大跨国集团才能更有力地渗入大豆链条中所有环节的业务,并不断在其中呼风唤雨、快速扩张。

(三)控制是如何实现的?


 

1. 对种子的控制

直到1990年以前,没有人能控制大豆种子。那时,种子几乎完全掌握在豆农与国营育种公司手中。但从20世纪90年代中期起,情形发生了变化,而且是巨大的变化:几家跨国公司,如孟山都、先正达(Syngenta)、拜耳(Bayer)、陶氏化学(Dow)、杜邦(DuPont)先后开始介入种子行业,大力推动种子供应的商品化,也就是以剥夺农民种子控制权的方式来实现自身利润最大化。1996年,孟山都推出了世界上第一个商业化的转基因大豆品种:“抗农达(Roundup Ready)转基因大豆”,其特点是不怕孟山都自己生产的“农达”型(Roundup)除草剂,农民什么时候对作物喷射除草剂都可以,不必等大豆生长到足以承受化学物质的时候才喷射。

从1996年开始,在跨国种子公司的推动下,各种转基因作物的种植面积都在快速扩大,包括玉米、棉花、油菜籽,但转基因大豆种植面积扩大的速度最快,尤其是在阿根廷、美国和巴西。在阿根廷,转基因大豆占大豆种植总面积的比重于2000年便超过90%;几年后,这个比重在美国也跨过了90%大关。与阿根廷毗邻的巴西曾一度花大气力抵御转基因大豆的入侵,但最终还是败下阵来。

到2010年,转基因大豆已占美国大豆种植总面积的93%,占阿根廷大豆种植总面积的99%,占巴西大豆种植总面积的76%,世界平均水平也已经接近80%。转基因大豆的种子从何而来呢?主要来自上面提到的那家公司,即孟山都。从2004年算起,世界上超过90%的转基因大豆种子都来自这一家公司。这使得作为种子和农用化学品供应商的孟山都在与豆农打交道时可以颐指气使,不可一世。

2. 对种植的控制

大豆的种植模式有两种,一是少数大型种植园,二是大量个体豆农。

在阿根廷和巴西,第一种模式占主导。比如马托格罗索州长、巴西国家参议员玛奇(Blairo Maggi)拥有的玛奇集团(André Maggi Group),在巴西拥有20万公顷的土地,是世界上最大规模的大豆种植户。巴西和阿根廷的大豆种植园平均拥有约为一千公顷土地(或15000亩土地),是中国农民想都不敢想的规模。而新出现的种植园规模往往更大,可以达到10000到15000公顷之间。这些大型种植园一般集中在大地主与跨国投资商手中。

即使在阿根廷与巴西也存在第二种模式,即千千万万个规模不大的大豆种植农场。就农场数目而言,它们占绝大多数;然而,就土地拥有量而言,它们却只占有很小一部分。换句话说,大豆种植是以极少数所有者控制极大量的土地的方式进行种植的,单兵作战的小农户实在是微不足道,只能受人宰割。

跨国公司控制小型大豆种植户的一个手法是合约式种植。在巴西,35%的大豆生产采取合约式种植的形式,缔约的一方往往是跨国粮商。利用欧美金融机构提供的贷款,ABCD四大粮商不时扮演银行的角色,向豆农提供贷款,豆农拿到的贷款通常直接来自于这些跨国公司。除了贷款,这些跨国公司还为农民提供种子、肥料和其它农用化学品,其回报是收获季节的大豆。例如,在2004年,邦吉一家公司便独自为巴西农民提供了价值约十亿美元的各类农业投入。其它跨国粮商也是各类农业投入的提供者。虽然这些跨国粮商通常不直接在大豆种植方面进行投资,但合约式种植实际上使它们得以间接控制大豆供应链上的种植环节。

3. 对贸易的控制

表面看来,是巴西、美国和阿根廷三个国家掌控了大豆的出口端,中国和欧洲两大经济体占据了大豆进口端,但事实上,大豆从出口端到进口端的贸易活动并不是由这些国家掌控的,而是由跨国粮商掌控的。跨国粮商往往在出口国掌控了出口,在进口国掌控了进口,大量的交易只是发生在跨国粮食企业内部,即各分公司之间。大豆供应链的贸易这一环节牢牢掌握在ABCD四大公司手中(其它大宗农产品也大同小异)。衡量大公司霸主地位的一个指标是最大三家公司占据某类市场的份额(即CR3)。早在2001年,美国大豆出口的CR3已达到65%。这也就是说,三家公司大约控制了当年美国大豆出口的三分之二。1990年,巴西大豆出口的CR3只有34%,1998年升至43%,而到2001年,已超过60%。巴西有二十万大豆种植户,但他们的产品只能出售给五家大宗产品贸易公司。与对豆种的控制不同,全球粮食贸易由几大粮商控制的局面由来已久。在ABCD四大公司中,至少有三家,即邦吉、嘉吉、路易•达孚从19世纪中后期便开始这类贸易活动了。

跨国公司在大豆贸易中占据霸主地位,这使得世界市场上的大豆价格在很大程度上变成了公司内部就可以决定的事情,因为这些公司既可以影响大豆产地卖出多少大豆,也可以影响大豆销地收购多少大豆,市场两端的出与进全是它们自己在运作。与这些大鳄打交道的农民们就比较惨了,他们不小心就会因这些公司的价格操纵而受到伤害。

同样,跨国公司建有遍布全球的分公司、子公司和关联公司,拥有海量有关各地市场供给、需求趋势的即时信息,而且它们的内部交易市场不对外开放。这些对独立贸易商来说,是不可企及的;尤其是那些来自发展中国家的贸易商。如果它们在跨国公司到来之前已经存在,后者可以很快把前者挤垮、吞并。如果它们不自量力与跨国公司在同一市场运作,充其量它们只能捞到些许残羹剩饭。

4. 对加工的控制

ABCD四大公司在全球范围内对大豆加工市场也不放过。这里我们也可以用最大三家或四家公司占据市场的份额(即CR3或CR4)来衡量大公司的霸主地位。据统计,大豆压榨业的CR4在美国达到80%(2002年、2007年数字),在巴西达到43%(2004年数字),在欧盟也达到80%(2004年数字)。阿根廷的情况更极端,CR3就高达85%(2010年数字)。

这些大型跨国公司渗入新市场的一个重要策略就是挤占当地的大豆加工市场:一方面它们通过大量购买当地加工厂的股份,一步步蚕食,最终夺取其控制权;另一方面,它们在当地建设新的加工厂,并迅速增加其产能。掌握了加工环节,就可以在很大程度上锁定进货来自这些大公司自身。

近些年,ABCD已经开始减少它们在北美的大豆压榨产能,而增加在新兴市场的产能,尤其是在中国的产能。二十年前,全球大豆压榨业中是美国一枝独秀。1992年~1993年间,在世界大豆压榨产量中,美国是3481万公吨,占据最大的市场份额,达39%;巴西占17%;阿根廷占9%。三国加在一起,它们占全球产能的三分之二左右。再加上欧盟国家的16%,已达全球的80%以上。而中国那时的产量只有449万公吨,占全球的5%,略高于日本的4%。

短短二十年以后,全球大豆压榨业的布局已决然不同。美国的产量已从2006年~2007年的峰值4919.8万公吨,下降到2012年~2013年2月底的4395.3万公吨,六年间跌幅达11%。与此形成鲜明对比的是,在同一时期,中国的产量从3597万公吨猛升至6565万公吨,六年间升幅达82.5%。如果从占全球大豆压榨产量的份额看,现在中国已以28.3%稳居第一;美国以18.9%退居老二;阿根廷以16.1%超过巴西的15.9%,分别排第三、第四;欧盟27国的加总份额是5.1%,是为老五。

如果看图8,中国的大豆压榨业似乎繁荣兴盛,形势大好:自1992年~1993年以来,中国的产量已经在二十年间翻了几乎十五番。这样的例子恐怕可以算得上是前无古人、后无来者了。

图8:1992年-2013年中国大豆压榨量(单位:万吨)

"1992年-2013年中国大豆压榨量(单位:万吨)"

资料来源:USDA,“Oilseeds:World Markets and Trade” ,历年统计。

然而,如今在中国土地上进行的大豆压榨并不一定由中国企业控制。1999年外资开始大举进入国内大豆压榨行业以前,中国土地上的大豆加工企业基本上都是内资企业。直到2000年,内资大豆油脂加工企业仍占全国产能的90.3%,占全国实际大豆压榨量的91%。而在2004年前后,作为国际大豆贸易定价基准的美国芝加哥期货交易所(CBOT)大豆期货价格剧烈波动,众多中国大豆加工企业高位采购后,却痛心地看到大豆价格骤降。此时,ABCD四大粮商控制着全球73%的粮食交易,不由人不怀疑大豆行情的大起大落是否有什么蹊跷。不管大豆行情这种过山车般的变化原因何在,其后果是导致中国大豆压榨企业几乎全军覆没。那时,国内油脂企业普遍遭遇严重困境:生产会亏损,不生产也会亏损。不仅小企业如此,一些大、中型企业也未能幸免。数据显示,那段期间,70%的国内压榨企业停产,大量企业倒闭。中国的“大豆危机”正好为对中国市场虎视眈眈,窥探已久,且资金雄厚的外资提供了一个绝好的机会。在这种情况下,形势急转直下,ADM、嘉吉、邦基、路易•达夫、丰益国际、托福、来宝等国际大豆主要供给商通过参股、控股、收购等低成本扩张方式攻城略地,大举进入中国大豆压榨行业,由此加快了中国大豆压榨行业的整合步伐,外资企业大豆压榨产能与实际压榨量的比重迅速攀升,内资企业压榨能力和实际压榨量不断萎缩。到2007年,内资大豆油脂加工企业产能为4920万吨,占全国的63.9%,比2000年下降了26.4个百分点;实际大豆压榨量1768万吨,占全国的52.0%,比2000年下降39.0个百分点。同期,外资企业压榨量从9.0%快速提高到48.0%。

2008年,国家实施扶持国产大豆政策之后,大豆压榨业的局面才没有进一步恶化。2010年,国企压榨量占整个行业的30.34%,外资约占37.24%,民营企业占32.42%,形成“外资主导、大型国企次之、民营企业补充”三足鼎立的市场格局。需要注意的是,所谓国企与民营企业也往往有外资的参股,外资控制的压榨量比重实际上更高一些。

在与老百姓日常生活息息相关的豆油领域,国产豆油的市场份额更低。根据国家粮油信息中心的统计,2005年~2006年度,国产大豆压榨数量为740万吨,占国内榨油消费总量的20.85%。此后一路下滑,2008年~2009年度,国产大豆压榨数量跌至220万吨,只占国内榨油消费量的5.23%。国家实施扶持国产大豆政策之后,2009年~2010年度,国产大豆压榨加工数量回升至600万吨,仍低于五年前的水平,占榨油消费市场份额为13.64%。据有关单位测算,最近两年国产大豆压榨数量占国内榨油消费量的比重只有10%左右。

上面已经提到,跨国粮商之所以要千方百计控制加工环节,除了攫取产业链上这个环节的利润外,更重要的是锁定大豆来源,即从它们控制的外国产地进口大豆。近年来,进口大豆潮水般地涌入中国市场与外资建厂密不可分。控制全球90%的大豆贸易的四大粮商控制了中国60%以上的实际压榨能力后,也垄断了中国80%的进口大豆货源。它们从南美购入廉价大豆、从美国购入享受巨额农业补贴的大豆,再高价转卖给在中国的压榨企业,赚取垄断的贸易利润。同时,它们全资拥有与控股的加工企业,还可以赚取加工利润。相当于从一头牛身上剥下好几张皮。

5. 跨国公司的联盟

以上分析清楚显示,少数几个跨国公司几乎控制着大豆产供销链条从基因到货架的所有环节。由于每个公司控制的环节存在差异,这些跨国公司还通常会组成形形色色的联盟,从合资、合伙、长期合同协议到其它形式的战略联合。总而言之,这些联盟体现的是它们之间的共谋关系,而不是竞争关系。这些战略联盟并非由某家企业拥有完全的所有权或控制权,而是由多家企业形成非常紧密的合同关系网络,以便增加它们对大豆产供销链条各个环节的控制。

孟山都与嘉吉于1998年各出资50%组建的合资企业——瑞耐森有限责任公司(Renessen LLC)就是这方面的一个例子。孟山都与嘉吉这两家公司的企业文化与经营策略非常不同,却走到了一起,目的是将孟山都在种子和生物科技方面的优势与嘉吉在粮食加工、销售、风险控制方面的优势结合起来。瑞耐森有限责任公司的任务是为粮食加工与饲料市场开发与销售转基因产品,包括转基因大豆(还包括转基因玉米、小麦、及其它油料作物)。相似的例子还有ADM 与制药及生物技术跨国公司诺华(Novartis)的合作。一般人只知道诺华是世界上第二大制药厂,其实它在农用化工产品方面也是一只大鳄,涉足全球五十多个国家的市场。2000年,诺华将其旗下的涉农部门与另一家公司合并,组建了先正达公司(Syngenta),先正达生产八大类农业产品,现已成为世界上第三大种子(杂交种子与转基因种子)公司。通过这项联盟,拥有庞大加工网络的ADM可以与更多的农户直接打交道,在种子、农用化工产品方面占有优势的诺华则可以为使用其产品的用户确保下游市场。

这些合作都显示了沿产供销链条纵向联手的趋势,由世界上最大的农业投入企业(农药、化肥、种子、生物技术巨头)与世界上最大的粮商(从事贸易、加工以及市场营销)联姻。前者需要后者遍布全球的处理与加工设施,以保证使用它们产品的生产者拥有下游市场;反过来,通过加强与上游合作伙伴的合作,跨国粮商也可以强化它们对豆农与原材料的控制。在这些联盟内部,不存在开放市场的问题。因此,从转基因种子到货架上的最终消费品,在整个产供销过程中,竞争与价格发挥就没有什么角色了。

跨国粮商之间的横向联盟也十分常见,如路易•达孚与ADM在1993年的合资项目,邦吉与嘉吉在1995年的交换合作,路易•达孚与嘉吉在2001年的合资项目等等。

这些纵向与横向联盟的强大力量使得市场的竞争空间紧缩。研究者一般都接受这样的看法,当四个最大的公司的市场份额的总和超过行业的40%时,市场的竞争性就开始递减,导致顾客支付的更多,厂家的利润更高。而现实情况是,这几大跨国公司与它们战略同盟的市场总份额已经远远超过40%,这使人不由怀疑其他参与者是否还有可能与它们在这些市场上进行公平竞争。

四、资本介入的影响——谁受益?谁受损?


 

在几大跨国资本几乎垄断了大豆产供销链条所有环节的情况下,受益方毫无疑问是像孟山都和ABCD这样的大公司。

千百年来,农民都是在收获后储存一部分作为来年使用的种子。那时,豆种的价格往往比一般大豆的价格高不了多少。在1980年的美国市场,前者是后者的一倍左右,约为12美元一蒲式耳。到1995年,即大规模推广转基因大豆的前夜,两者的价格稍微有点变化,豆种13.6美元一蒲式耳,不过两者的差距基本上维持不变。

但1996年他们使用上孟山都的种子以后,情况就不一样了。农民第一次从孟山都购买它的转基因大豆种子时,需要签订一个“技术使用协议”,这份协议充斥着让人头痛的法律与技术名词,很多农民看不懂或没有看这份协议就签了字。而协议的要害在于农民购买的种子只能使用一次,禁止农民在收获时留下转基因种子进行再播种,除非他们向孟山都缴纳不同名目的专利费。在保护“知识产权”的名义下,历尽千百年形成的农民种植模式被打破了。为了让农民就范,孟山都不止一次采取“杀鸡吓猴”的方式,把它认为违反“专利”的农民告上法庭。

巴西本来禁止使用孟山都的转基因豆种。那时孟山都一边游说巴西政府放弃对转基因豆种的限制,另一方面对巴西豆农种植从阿根廷走私进来的转基因豆种采取睁只眼闭只眼的策略。两个原因迫使巴西政府后来放弃了对转基因大豆的禁令。一个原因是,种植走私转基因大豆的豆农越来越多。到2000年,巴西南部已有20%~40%的大豆是转基因大豆。另一个原因是,日益扩大的中国市场对巴西具有强大的吸引力。当中国希望巴西对出口到中国的大豆进行非转基因认证时,巴西政府只能拿出孟山都的说法,“没有证据显示转基因大豆对健康构成威胁”。中国政府接受这个说法后,巴西政府也顺势于2002年批准让豆农有条件地种植转基因大豆:他们不能买卖转基因豆种,但可以使用自己上一季的收获作为种子。目前,巴西生产的大豆85%都是转基因大豆。一旦转基因豆种合法化了,孟山都就站出来收费了。它与两大跨国粮商嘉吉与ADM达成协议:在收购大豆时,粮商会检验它们是否属于“抗农达”品种。如果是,它们将向豆农收取每吨7美元的专利费,收入与孟山都五五分成。不满的巴西豆农为此一直在与孟山都打官司,但专利费还得交。由于巴西是世界上第二大大豆生产国,并增长迅速,孟山都期待从中获得巨大利润。

然而一旦用上孟山都的转基因种子,一个地方的农民再想回到原来的种植习惯就不容易了,因为他们也许没有留下原来的种子,或已为使用孟山都的转基因种子花大价钱购置了相关设备。真可谓“上贼船容易,下贼船难”。

与此同时,孟山都与其它大型跨国种子公司大举收购、并购其它种子公司,或与其它种子公司结成战略联盟。孟山都在过去几年花在收购、并购的资金就达300亿美元。到2008年,全球主要农作物(包括大豆)种子市场的三分之二被十家公司控制,其中孟山都居于翘首地位,独占22.4%。在大豆种子领域,孟山都及约两百家关联公司现已控制了高达93%的美国市场份额,美国豆农们几乎全都使用着孟山都的“抗农达”型豆种。

通过其垄断地位,孟山都几乎可以随心所欲地提高豆种价格。从1975年到2000年的25年间,豆种价格增加了63%;而在接下来的12年间,豆种价格飙升了211%,几倍于同期消费物价指数的增长率,涨至53.2美元一蒲式耳,比1995年贵了四倍。在孟山都赚得盆满钵满的同时,豆农却不得不承担越来越重的负担。1997年,豆农在种子上只需花费其收入的4%~8%,而到2009年,种植转基因大豆的豆农需要花费其收入的16.4%来购买种子。

其实豆种只是孟山都的收入来源之一,“抗农达”豆种的特点是有利于放心地使用孟山都的“农达”型除草剂,而不伤害豆苗。本来,孟山都之所以研发“抗农达”豆种的目的就是为了维持或扩大其“农达”型除草剂的销售。因此,推广“抗农达”种子可以一箭双雕:一方面卖种子赚钱,另一方面卖除草剂赚钱。

图9:1996年-2012年孟山都的净销售额(单位:亿美元)

"1996年-2012年孟山都的净销售额(单位:亿美元)"

资料来源:孟山都公司网站提供的年度财务报告

图9显示,自1996年推出转基因豆种以来,孟山都的净销售额几乎呈直线上升态势。1996年,它的净销售额不到30亿美元,此后快速上升,到2012年已达135亿美元,是1996年的4.5倍。

而与ABCD四大粮商相比,孟山都实际上是小巫见大巫。如嘉吉的净销售额是孟山都的近十倍,完全不在一个数量级上。但与孟山都一样,这些在国际粮食市场上兴风作浪的大鳄们近十年来也是所向披靡,大有斩获。如果用中国开始大举从国际市场进口大豆的1999年作为起点,图10显示,在十年后的2012年,ADM的净销售额增长了4.8倍,邦吉的净销售额增长了7.55倍,表现相对最差的嘉吉净销售额也增长了2.93倍。作为私人公司的路易•达孚(Louis Dreyfus Group)从不公布年度财务报告,只有它旗下的大宗商品公司(Louis Dreyfus Commodities)近年来偶尔公布销售业绩。因此图10中有关这家公司的数据既不完整也不系统。但它仍然告诉我们,在短短四年间(2008年~2011年),其大宗商品公司的净销售额几乎翻了一番。

图10:1999年-2012年ABCD四大粮商的净销售额(单位:亿美元)

"1999年-2012年ABCD四大粮商的净销售额(单位:亿美元)"

资料来源:这四家公司网站提供的年度财务报告

图11:1996年-2011年ADM、邦吉、嘉吉的利润(单位:百万美元)

"1996年-2011年ADM、邦吉、嘉吉的利润(单位:百万美元)"

资料来源:Murphy,Burch,and Clapp,“Cereal Secrets”,Figure 2。

这些跨国粮商不仅销售上去了,利润也水涨船高。如图11所示,从2001年以后,ABC三家的利润都大幅攀升,与此前的1996年~2001年间形成鲜明对比。相比路易•达孚的业绩也同样亮丽。

在资本受益的同时,付出代价的是人与自然。图12显示代表大资本的ABCD四大粮商与孟山都如何在方方面面危及普通人与他们赖以生存的生态环境。

图12:资本如何危及人类安全

"资本如何危及人类安全"

先看国际大资本参与大豆产供销链条对出口国的小农的影响。推广抗除草剂的转基因豆种促使大豆的种植方式发生了根本性的变化。新生产方式的特点是超大土地规模、资本密集、严重依赖农用化学品(农药与化肥)、严重依赖农用机械。这种游戏只有大地主与资本雄厚的投资者才能玩得起。他们从贫困农民手中大肆收购田地,一步步取代小型、多样化的生产方式。在巴西与阿根廷,最初大豆是在小型家庭农场生产的,规模约为5公顷~50公顷(约75亩~750亩)。这本来已经是中国豆农难以企及的规模了。然而,后来大豆农场的规模越来越大,小农场占有土地的比重越来越低。近年来,新出现的大豆种植园往往在一万至五万公顷,这意味着土地所有权进一步集中到了大地主与投资者手中。在巴西与阿根廷出现了同样的局面:绝大多数的农场都是小农场,但绝大多数土地都由大农场占据。小农场每8公顷土地需雇用一位工人,而大农场每200公顷才雇用一位工人。于是,大农场取代小农场产生了一个严重后果:大量的家庭农场主变成了无地农民,而现有农场提供的就业机会也在急剧减少。对失地农民而言,进城意味着栖身贫民窟,留在乡下意味着饥饿。本来,巴西与阿根廷都是世界粮仓,穷归穷,但穷人一般还不至于陷入饥饿的境地。但现在,由于大量土地从生产粮食转向生产供出口的大豆,也由于土地高度集中,这些地方也出现了饥饿现象。

即使是幸存的小农场也不得不严重依赖跨国公司提供的信贷、种子、机械、化肥、农药、销售渠道。他们无法与资金雄厚、全球布局的跨国粮商比实力,在双方博弈中不得不甘拜下风。

对大豆进口国的小农来说,跨国资本的威胁更是十分直接而明显。大豆起源于中国,中国曾经是世界上最大的大豆生产国,而且迄今为止,中国生产的大豆仍是没有任何健康隐忧的非转基因大豆。面临国内日益高涨的大豆需求,这些本来都应是中国豆农的福音。但是中国的国家力量虽然十分强大,但它的1300万生产大豆的农户(或四千万依赖大豆为生的农民)与孟山都、ABCD那样的庞然大物相比,完全不是人家的对手。即使中国最大的现代化农业企业集团——黑龙江农垦(北大荒集团),44在财力、物力、信息占有方面也无法与ABCD中的任何一家抗衡。

本来,在美国、巴西、阿根廷大片土地上经营的大豆就比在中国分散农户的小片土地上经营的大豆具有单位成本较低的优势。这些国家于1996年开始大范围推广抗除草剂的转基因大豆以后,经营者可以毫无顾忌地在大田使用除草剂,使得那里大豆种植园的规模进一步扩大,大豆生产的单位成本也因而进一步降低。正是在此以后,外国大豆像潮水一般涌入中国。

不过从中赚大头的不是美国、巴西、阿根廷的豆农,而是几大跨国粮商。虽然这些粮商不直接参与大豆的种植,但它们通过发放生产贷款、修筑交通设施(铁路、公路、港口)等方式,控制了北美与南美大豆生产,使那里的豆农不得不以低廉的价格,用大豆来抵偿贷款。国际粮商以相当低廉的价格采购大豆,然后通过国际期货市场,以它们认为合适的价格将大豆再卖出去。理想地讲,它们当然希望采购价与销售价之间的差距越大越好;但是,为了打垮潜在的竞争对手,它们也会人为地压低销售价,实行低价倾销战略。

这就涉及到中国豆农另一个巨大的劣势,即在资本与信息占有方面与国际大粮商处于完全不对称的地位。在国际大宗商品期货市场上拼的不仅仅是产品质量,而且还是动员资本的能力、占有与处理信息的能力。前面已经提到,四大粮商在国际金融市场上可以轻易地在短期内动员巨大的资金流。在信息占有与处理方面,它们的优势更是中国豆农(甚至中国的大企业)难以比拟的。四大粮商都是全球布局,在世界上各个角落设有专门收集市场信息的机构,与公司总部的信息处理中心实时沟通,由专业人士进行梳理、分析,它们每天24小时、每周7天、每年365天全天候运作,为国际期货市场上的买进、卖出决策提供支撑。正是由于具有资本与信息方面的优势,这些跨国粮商与华尔街的投机商得以于2002年、2003年和2004年连续三次在国际期货市场作局向中国大豆压榨企业“逼仓”。经过那一次洗劫,中国压榨企业元气大伤,一半以上的中小企业停产倒闭,不得不眼看着跨国粮商借机以低价兼并中国企业。

如果那些资金还算雄厚的国内压榨企业都玩不过国际粮商与国际投机商,更何况那些单打独斗的豆农呢?面对被人为压低价格的、以排山倒海之势涌入的进口大豆,中国的豆农们往往不得不放弃大豆,另寻活路。结果,如图13所示,中国的大豆种植面积在过去二十年里先是上下波动,最后几年便一头向下了。如果这种颓势不能扭转,那几千万豆农及其他们家人的命运就令人担忧了。

图13:1936年-2012年中国种植大豆面积

"1936年-2012年中国种植大豆面积"

资料来源:Earth Policy Institute,http://www.earth-policy.org/data_center/C24;2012年的数据来自“2010-2012年中国大豆种植面积与产量”,中国饲料行业信息网,2012年12月30日,http://www.feedtrade.com.cn/soybean/soybeanqushi/2012-12-30/2011872.html

前面提到,相对于生产国的豆农,跨国粮商具有无比的优势。同时,由于大豆收购权也集中在越来越少的几家粮商手中,它们可以尽量压低收购价,而豆农则往往别无选择。那么这是否意味着进口国的消费者也能搭车成为赢家呢?不一定。只要可能的话,这些公司会把从低价购入得到好处留作利润;只有为了打开或巩固它们在某地市场的份额时,它们才会让那儿的消费者暂时获益。不少研究表明,总地来说,农产品出场价格与最终销售价格之间的差额越来越大。如1997年,世界银行的一份研究估计,在全球范围的大宗商品交易中(作者的主要例子是农产品),两者的差额越来越大,当时高达每年1000亿美元,而跨国贸易公司的垄断行为是罪魁祸首,因为哪里跨国公司的市场影响越大,那里两者的差额就越高。2002年联合国贸易和发展会议的一份研究也注意到,自20世纪80年代以来,生产者价格与零售价格之间的差额扩大得很快,尤其是在那些市场集中程度很高的国家。换句话说,消费者迟早也是跨国资本垄断行为的受害者。

图14:1983年-2013年大豆月度价格变化(单位:美元/吨)

"1983年-2013年大豆月度价格变化(单位:美元每吨)"

资料来源:Index Mundi,“Soybeans Monthly Price (US Dollars per Metric Ton)”,http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=soybeans&months=360

国际大豆期货市场上的波动既不能完全由供求关系解释,也不能完全归咎于无序的投机。图14显示的是芝加哥期货交易所(CBOT)的大豆价格在过去三十年间的变化轨迹。我们看到从1983年到2001年,虽然世界市场上的大豆价格有起有伏,但都在160美元~320美元的区间内运动。然而,从2002年开始,大豆价格波动加剧,但一路向上。2004年突破360美元(正是在此前后,中国大豆压榨企业几乎全军覆没),2007年底突破400美元,2008年中突破500美元。2008年9月爆发的金融危机一度导致大豆价格跳水,但最低也只是跌到320美元;然后升势再现,于2012年7月突破600美元大关,此后一直保持在500美元以上。很难证明前面将近二十年的供求关系比较平衡,而过去十年中,需求大大超过供给。如果中国的消费需求大增是驱使大豆价格上扬的原因,那么为什么国内豆农的大豆却难以卖出呢?显然,供求关系很难解释图14中的变化。那么,这种变化能否用无序投机解释了?恐怕也不行。对比图11与图14告诉我们,国际期货市场上的投机也不是无序的,赢家不是随机分布。真正的赢家还是那些拥有庞大资本的跨国公司。它们可以在时机成熟时,抬高全球市场价格,使自己的盈利最大化。如果这个分析成立,消费者最终也会是受害者。2008年前后,不仅大豆价格飙升,其它粮食的价格也一起飙升。食物价格的上涨引发世界各地出现食物骚乱,并导致一些国家的政权更替。人们有理由担心,在目前的市场格局下,这种情况还可能重现。

资本控制大豆的产供销还可能对人类健康产生影响。图2显示,在不到二十年的时间里,中国的大豆消费增长了近七倍。可以推想,在此期间,中国人的豆油消费翻了几番,与豆粕相关的肉类消费也翻了几番。对于那些消费过低的人群而言,这也许是件好事。然而,越来越多的人食用油消费量已经超标,使得患肥胖症与其它慢性病的人比重不断攀升。更大的隐忧是转基因食品对人类健康存在什么潜在风险。完全排斥转基因技术显然是不明智的。中国推广转基因棉花已经显著降低了农药的使用,这是转基因技术正面效应的一个明证。但对于转基因食品,没有经过长期、严格的测试就广泛推广则是存在风险的,必须实施严格的标示制度让消费者在区分转基因与非转基因食品的基础上作出选择。推广转基因作物的跨国公司往往借口说,现在还没有证据表明转基因食品不安全。这并不意味着,转基因食品对人类健康不存在任何威胁。如果政府据此就为转基因食品大开绿灯,那将是不负责任的。更重要的是,对于在本国推广转基因作物,必须慎之又慎。最近,为了缓解公众担忧,中国政府决定推迟引入转基因水稻和玉米。虽然中国于2009年已向转基因Bt水稻和转基因植酸酶玉米颁发了安全证书,但作为全球最大的水稻生产国和消费国,切不可冒然全面推广。

资本对大豆产供销链条的控制对生态环境的负面影响也不可忽视。在美国、巴西、阿根廷的大豆生产带,单一作物的种植可能破坏土壤自然微生物成分,造成土壤流失;在那些不加限制地耕种转基因大豆、并严重依赖农用化工品的地区,这种危险尤为突出。更可怕的是,大豆生产在巴西的快速发展已成为导致亚马逊雨林被大面积砍伐与焚烧的重要原因之一。仅在1990年~2000年十年间破坏的森林面积,就相当于葡萄牙的两倍。森林的消失释放出大量原本藏于植被和土壤中的二氧化碳。亚马逊雨林被砍伐和烧毁树木因此将这片“地球之肺”变为了“排碳大户”,使巴西成为全球最大的温室气体排放国之一;其中高达75%的排放来自对雨林的破坏。

本来亚马逊雨林蕴藏着世界最丰富、最多样的生物资源,昆虫、植物、鸟类及其他生物种类多达数百万种。对它的大面积破坏显然同时会导致生物多样性的丧失。生物多样性是生态体系的基础,在保障人类生命延续方面扮演着不可或缺的角色。生物多样性的丧失最终会危及人类本身的安全。然而,除了森林砍伐会破坏生物多样性以外,大规模生产转基因大豆也会导致同样的结果。前面提到,转基因大豆最大的特点是可以抗除草剂。因此,推广转基因大豆往往导致更无顾忌、更大量地使用除草剂。据孟山都公司网站介绍,它生产的“农达”除草剂是世界上运用最广的农化产品。目前“农达”已经在世界上119个国家和地区得到广泛使用。有一百多种作物可以使用“农达”来防治杂草。同时“农达”对三百多种杂草都有良好的控制作用。但“农达”除草剂在消除妨碍作物生长的杂草的同时,也会杀死其它植物,包括大量无害有益的植物,并且还会危及依赖这些植物为生的昆虫、禽鸟、哺乳动物。此外,除草剂的滥用会导致地下水的污染,以及“超级杂草”的出现。

五、结语

资本是促使大豆产供销在全球范围整合为一体的关键。今天,远在太平洋另一端的美国、巴西、阿根廷农民生产的大豆被加工成豆油在中国销售;中国人消费的肉类、奶类产品也间接与来自远方的大豆有关。然而,把大豆的生产与消费连接在一起的资本以及资本的化身,那些跨国公司,并不把大豆看作是人类生存的食品,而是将大豆更多地视为一种用来交易的商品,一种赚取利润的手段。现在,世界上绝大部分大豆,从准备它的生产投入开始,一直到其副产品被摆上商店的货架为止,几乎是全面被少数几家跨国公司控制着,它们的唯一目标是争取其所有者和股东们的利益最大化。这种权力的高度集中已经危及亿万人民的安全。不少人仅仅看到政府权力高度集中的危险性,对资本权力高度集中的危害性,我们也许也应该高度警惕。

本文根据作者于2011年4月29日~30日在美国哥伦比亚大学“当今世界的资本:条件、意含、状况”(Capital in Today’s World:Conditions,Meanings,Situations)学术研讨会上的发言改写而成,原稿由清华大学国情研究院王洪川、魏星译为中文。文中数据已更新为最新数据。

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2013/5/15

旧文章ID:15845

班农:让抵制特朗普贸易战的华尔街见鬼去吧!

作者:  来源:华尔街见闻

  近来,随着贸易战日益升温,华尔街对白宫贸易政策的担忧和批评不绝于耳。
  在特朗普前首席策略师班农看来,华尔街的担忧并没有考虑普通民众的利益。
  周四,在接受路透社电话采访时,班农称:
  问一问俄亥俄、宾夕法尼亚和密歇根州的劳动人民怎么看待华尔街吧。华尔街把他们的就业机会都出口到国外了。如果华尔街不喜欢,那就让华尔街见鬼去吧。现在人民需要一个人,而特朗普就是这个人。特朗普正在保护美国资本主义的心脏——我们的创新能力。
  班农称,特朗普最近的动作显示出,在对中国商品加收关税方面,“永远推迟的游戏结束了”。
  班农说:
  特朗普对此筹谋已久,他做事情巧妙,针对的就是技术转移。很显然,中国实际上并未对此作出真正的回应。我认为现在的局面完全在特朗普的掌控之中。中国增加农产品关税以及对技术问题避而不谈,再次证明中国不过是把美国视作一个二流国家。
  不论是中国人偷走的还是强迫美国人交出的技术创新,都是对美国资本主义核心的损害。特朗普的意图很明显,这样的日子一去不复返了。
  面对美国的政策,周四的人民日报指出:
  面对美国的公然挑衅,中国有信心、有实力、有底牌,在任何贸易战面前给予强有力的反击,让美国为自己不负责任的霸道行为付出代价。中国也有意愿、有诚心、有行动,与世界各国一道,积极维护多边贸易体制权威,共同建设开放型世界经济。
  外交部发言人耿爽周三表示,中美之间就贸易问题一直保持沟通。在推动通过对话协商解决有关问题上,中方展示了充分的诚意,开展了大量的工作。但对话协商妥善解决问题的最佳机会被美方一再错过。希望美方认清形势、保持理性,倾听工商界和普通民众的声音,及早摒弃单边主义、贸易保护主义做法,通过对话协商解决中美贸易分歧。同时我们也希望双方的协商遵从国际法和贸易规则,而不是美国的国内法。要做到相互尊重、平等相待,而不是居高临下,由一方来单方进行胁迫。协商要体现互谅互让、有取有予,而不应是漫天要价、胡搅蛮缠。
  那个离开白宫的班农又回来了?
  2016年8月,在大选如火如荼之际,班农进入大众的视野,当月,他辞去右翼民粹主义网站布赖特巴特新闻网的职务,全心全意帮助特朗普竞选。
  特朗普就任后,班农被任命为白宫首席策略师和总统顾问,特朗普最初的诸多政策,例如签署部分中东国家公民的旅行禁令、退出《巴黎协定》等背后都有班农的影子。
  但是,正如华尔街见闻主编精选文章《班农落幕:“影子总统”是如何陨落的?》一文中提到的,由于特朗普逐渐意识到需要同共和党建制派合作时,当时用民粹主义帮助特朗普赢得大选的班农就不得不离开白宫。
  不过,班农的政治生涯未必就此终结。由于美国社会中民粹主义、极右翼保守主义滋生的土壤并没有完全消失,市场预计,班农将会继续资助共和党内更保守的势力及其代言人。

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2018/4/5

旧文章ID:15844

薛力:中国崛起后的国际角色

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作者:薛力  来源:《世界知识》

  在2018年第5期的“地心力说”专栏文章中,笔者提到中国可能致力于建立一种“中华礼治秩序(体系)”,其特点是: 以“礼”为主要粘合剂、是圈层结构、保持开放性。这种体系与现行的国际体系兼容,而体系的成员国大部分是中国周边国家,也包括若干来自其他大洲的国家。
  那么,届时中国是否将取代美国在全球的领导地位?这取决于两方面因素:中国的意愿和中国的实力。
  邓小平、江泽民、胡锦涛、习近平等中国领导人均明确表示过“中国永不称霸”。习近平还说过,中国“不是想成为所谓的‘世界警察’,更不是要取代谁”。这可以看作中国没有取代美国的意愿。有人或许会说:国家的意愿是可变的,关键是实力,中国现在这样表态是因为实力还不够。那么,中国的实力有可能超过美国吗?
  实力分为硬实力与软实力。二战后美国能在全球建立领导地位,硬实力是必要条件,特别是是经济实力与军事实力。但硬实力要加上软实力才能构成充当领导国的充分必要条件。美国的软实力主要体现在:对国际制度的构建与主导;基督教国家属性;较高的科技与教育水平;比较宽松的移民政策。
  二战结束时美国占全球经济总量的60%,工业生产能力达全球的一半,其中石油与钢铁产量分别占全球的70%和64%,再加上占当时整个资本主义世界73.4%的黄金储备。以此为基础,加上其强大的生产能力与科技水平,美国在二战结束时的军事实力足以与其他国家组成的“世界联军”对垒,并且不落下风。
  二战后美国始终是全球最大的经济体,同期构建起了全球同盟体系与全球军事基地网。
  不同于英法等国通过殖民地体系来发挥国际影响力,美国更倾向于通过构建国际制度来治理世界:政治与安全领域的联合国及其附属机构、军事领域的同盟体系以及在全球的军事基地、金融领域的布雷顿森林体系、贸易领域的关贸总协定。
  与地理大发现相伴随的是欧洲势力的全球扩展。但欧洲主导世界局势的结果是,在欧洲本土爆发两次世界大战。这既摧毁了欧洲领导世界的能力,也表明欧洲的世界治理模式已经失效。但欧洲又不希望世界的领导权落在苏联或者非基督教国家手中(欧盟对土耳其入盟的态度即是明证)。基督教国家的身份、强大的实力以及在二战中发挥的作用,使得美国成为欧洲国家的理想选择。二战的爆发也让美国摆脱了孤立主义。而基督教徒在世界上的广泛分布则显著地降低了美国治理世界的成本。在民族国家体系中,跨文明治理的成本非常昂贵,美国通过别的方式较好地处理了这个问题。
  美国的工业生产总值在1894年已经位居世界首位,但在科研、高等教育方面全面超越欧洲,还需要等到二战之后。这期间,有别于“欧洲精神”的“美国精神”得以构建并成型,人文与社会科学迅速发展,在许多学科已经赶上乃至超过欧洲。加上二战期间大量流向美国的欧洲知识精英,美国得以取代欧洲成为全球高等教育与科研的中心,从而吸引全世界的人才往美国流动。而比较宽松的移民政策也吸引各国移民在美国定居并发挥才干。“得天下英才而用之”的结果是,美国拥有独步全球的创新能力(二战后美国贡献了半数以上的诺贝尔奖获得者),并成为不同国家、不同文明背景的人都能接受的“新故乡”,从而大大降低了美国治理世界的成本。移民政策与人才政策的良性互动是美国的一大比较优势,这一点在可以预见的未来还会继续。
  二战为美国成为世界领导国提供了难得的契机。然而,在核武器时代通过世界大战重构世界秩序已经难以想象。和平崛起是中国的现实选择,从而使得中国只能在一些指标上超过美国,如经济实力、吸引的留学生数量等,而在同盟国数量、全球军事基地、金融领域的国际影响力等方面,则很难达到美国的水平。
  跨文明的治理成本高昂。与基督教文明与伊斯兰教文明相比,中华文明是比较典型的区域文明。这种特点提升了中国的全球治理成本,也在一定程度上使得中国难以像美国那样吸引全球人才并成为他们的“新故乡”,从而给中国在科研实力与创新能力上超越美国带来了不利影响。
  中国在崛起的过程中很可能会致力于构建自己主导的一些体系。但在可预见的未来这仍将是一种区域性的秩序(体系),其主导性主要体现在非军事领域。但在某些功能领域,可以构建全球性机制,比如亚投行。
  (作者为中国社科院世界经济与政治研究所国际战略室主任、研究员)

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2018/4/3

旧文章ID:15843

薛力:“中华礼治秩序”初探

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作者:薛力  来源:《世界知识》

  中国将致力于建立什么样的世界秩序?这是全球瞩目的议题,中国学者有必要加以思考与回答。笔者的思考体会是:中国可能将致力于建立“中华礼治秩序”,或叫“中华礼治体系”。其主要特点是:“礼”成为秩序(体系)的关键粘合剂;这是一种圈层结构;这个体系具有开放性。
  “礼”的地位汉代以后,儒家思想已经成为中华文化的主干,对国家政治生活与个人生活影响巨大。而“礼”在儒家文化中居于中心地位,仁义礼智信这“五常”中的“仁”“义”要靠“礼”来实现,而“智”与“信”则是实现“礼”的手段。古代中国还有“家国同构”的理念,所以, 强调“人无礼则不生,事无礼则不成,国无礼则不宁”。也就是说,无论是处理个人关系还是国家间关系,都要“有礼”,而“失礼”则是一件比较严重的事情。显然,这些状况现在依然存在。
  “礼”在汉语中含义广泛:恰当的言语或行为、行为准则、仪式、赠物、姓,等等。“五常”中的“礼”主要指前两者。在长达一千多年的历史里,东亚地区存在着以中国为中心的国际体系即华夷秩序,中国在处理与藩属国关系时奉行“薄来厚往”。这种做法无疑“合于礼”,且有助于维持彼此间关系的稳定,进而维护整个华夷秩序。今天,中国在推进“一带一路”建设的过程中,未必采取“薄来厚往”的做法,但也没有把商业利益放在首位。“扶持对华友好的发展中国家”是重要考量,因此强调正确义利观、亲诚惠容、真实亲诚等,并大量投资于经济回报不太理想的基础设施。在未来的“中华礼治秩序”中,作为主导国的中国在处理与体系内成员国的关系时,也不大可能强调相对获益。原因在于,这既不符合大国与小国相处的一般特点,也不是中国一贯的风格。
  圈层结构华夷秩序是以皇宫为中心向外扩展的圈层结构体系。体系内的成员,不但亲疏有别,而且具有明显的等级制色彩。皇宫周围是王畿,王畿之外以五百里为一服,由近及远分为甸服﹑侯服﹑绥服(或宾服)﹑要服﹑荒服,合称五服。前三服为“华”,属于开化之地;后二服为“夷”,属于化外之地。这是因为,中国传统文化认为:人与人之间不平等是常态,重要的不是实现平等,而是根据适当的“礼”把个人联系起来,实现社会的有序运转。个体之间是如此,国家间亦然。每个人的亲属关系由亲到疏包括“五服”,国家也可以参照而划分为“五服”。
  基督教有“上帝面前人人平等”的观念,因此在现代性框架下演化出“法律面前人人平等”“男女平等”“大小国家一律平等”等。这些理念已经从地方性知识,变成了全球大部分人与国家认可的理念与实践。因此,“中华礼治秩序”很难重建等级制。但亲疏有别是客观存在,也消灭不了。即使是当今国际体系,美国与加拿大、英国、澳大利亚、新西兰的关系也特别密切。可以预期,在“中华礼治体系”中,中国也会把成员国依照亲疏进行分类。不过,与中国关系最好的那批国家未必来自儒家文化圈。
  体系的开放性 历史上的华夷秩序,不排斥任何国家,四方“化外之地”在进贡、册封等事务上,决定权主要在自身(藩属国在这方面的自由度相对小一些)。这主要是因为中国传统文化中具有“无外”理念,信奉“和而不同”,并强调“远人不服则修文德以来之”。基督教属于“一神教”,必然要区分“我们”与“他们”,强调“我们”是好的,必须想方设法同化“他们”,并且“我们”是先进的,必须教化“他们”。因此,欧美国家主导下建立的民族国家体系,强调结盟与树敌,习惯于用制度约束与同质化盟友。中国1990年代开始强调“伙伴外交”,发出“一带一路”倡议后,继续强化伙伴外交。这是传统文化的体现,也将会体现在中华礼治秩序中。这一秩序只能以和平方式建构,很难取代现有的国际体系。开放性也决定了它与现行国际体系可以兼容。基于上述特点,“中华礼治体系”的成员国数量将是动态的,不会太多,也不会太少,它们散布于各大洲,但大部分是中国周边国家。
  总之,“中华礼治秩序”(Chinese Li-based order)既不是西方人搞了几百年的“基于权力的秩序”(power-based order),也不是现在许多国家反复向中国推销的“基于规则的秩序”(rule-based order),而是一种基于中国传统、经过了现代性改造、以一些国家与中国的双边关系为导向(bilateral guanxi-oriented)、与现行国际体系兼容的新型国际体系。

  (作者为中国社科院世界经济与政治研究所国际战略室主任、研究员)

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2018/2/28

旧文章ID:15842

China’s "Appeal Mom" Denied Compensation and Justice—A Case Study Analysis through Weibo

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作者:Julie Wu  来源:US-China Perception Monitor

On Friday April 12, the Yongzhou Intermediate People’s Court in Yongzhou, Hunan denied compensation to a former labor camp inmate. Tang Hui, who was sentenced to 18 months in a labor camp in August 2012 after petitioning for harsher punishment for the men who raped her young daughter, had sued the Yongzhou authorities for 2,460 yuan (approximately 400 USD) in compensation and requested a written apology from the Yongzhou Re-education through Labor Commission.

Tang garnered widespread media attention over the years and earned herself the title of “Appeal Mom” as a mother relentlessly appealing court decisions and demanding justice for her daughter. Her most recent court hearing has again resonated with netizens in China, and a picture of Tang crying outside the courtroom has gone viral on Weibo.[1]

Story of the “Appeal Mom”

Tang began her story and quest for justice almost seven years ago in October 2006, when her then 11-year-old daughter, Lele (pseudonym), disappeared. Lele was kidnapped by human traffickers, and was raped and forced into prostitution at a local brothel before she was finally discovered and rescued three months later.

At first, the local police department was reluctant to establish a case for Lele and dismissed it as “just another public-order case.”[2] Tang suspected that the Yongzhou police department was shielding the owners of the brothel and threatened to end her life if the local authorities did not offer justice. The local police department finally placed the case on file for investigation  in January 2007.

In June 2008, the Yongzhou Intermediate People’s Court issued sentences to seven defendants: death sentences to two defendants, life sentences to two others, and 15 to 16 years in jail for the other three. Tang was not satisfied with the verdict and pushed for the death penalty for all seven defendants. Moreover, she claimed that local police officers had falsified evidence to lessen the sentence for Qin Xing, the owner of the brothel[3],, and that Lele’s identification of two local policemen as rapists was deliberately ignored by government investigators.

Since then, Tang continued to demand punishment for the police officers who tried to shield the offenders. In June 2012, the Hunan Provincial Higher People’s Court finalized the verdict: the two abductors were sentenced to death, four others received life sentences, and one defendant was given a 15-year sentence. Upon hearing the judgment, Tang indicated that she would stop appealing and lead a peaceful life with her family.

Tang Sentenced to “re-education through labor” camp incites Weibo justice

However, Tang’s happiness and peace was short-lived. On August 2, 2012, Tang received a letter stating that she had been sentenced to 18 months of re-education through labor for having “disturbed social order countless times, not repenting after penalty and continuing her vexatious acts…seriously disturbing the institutional and social order.” Eighteen months. No lawyer and no trial.

Before she was taken away Tang called her attorney, who posted the news to his Weibo, China’s popular social media platform akin to Twitter. Within days, her story had reached more than 30 million Weibo users, causing a national outrage. What ensued on Weibo were downpours of public criticism and discontent as furious netizens demanded Tang be released. Ten days later, China Central Television(CCTV) announced Tang’s release. Although officials did not admit to this, the people credited the overwhelming Weibo uproar and public pressure as what led to a reversal of the government’s sentence.

“Weibo had a very big impact on my situation because our local government tried to cover up this case….But this time, people around China and even around the world found out they put me in the labor camp. And the local government couldn’t resist so many people’s power,” Tang Hui stated upon her release in August 2012.

By allowing the public to stay informed of current events, Weibo often presents itself as a platform for ordinary citizens to voice their problems and rally support. Tang’s release from the labor camp suggests that Weibo can also work as an instrument to pressure politicians on local government officials. Before the emergence of Weibo, local people actually had limited channels to try to solve their problems.

Weibo’s reaction to the latest court decision

Up until April 12, Tang’s case has been reviewed by the court six times and remanded twice, and has received four different rulings. Since then, Tang has once again become the topic of discussion on Weibo.

Sina Weibo’s daily Current Events Hot Searches List provides a list of top keywords of the day based on what its users are searching. On April 12, within hours after Tang’s trial in the afternoon, the term “Tang Hui (Appeal Mother Tang Hui from Yongzhou, Hunan, lost her lawsuit)” was ranked number four with 19,229 searches and rising. Its counterpart on Tencent Weibo showed that the term “Tang Hui” was in approximately 44,400 tweets/retweets; the number nearly doubled to approximately 97,500 tweets/retweets on April 14.

Most people are sympathetic towards Tang, and they were quick to point out the flawed logic in the court’s reasoning. That is, Tang’s sentence to re-education through labor was once justified by the court, but her release later meant that the court was wrong in its initial ruling and should compensate Tang for its wrongful decision. The court, however, has affirmed that both of its decisions stand correctly and have refused Tang compensation.

Famous businessman and renowned Angel Investor, Xue Manzi, commented on the event on his Weibo: “Today’s Dou E[4], [I] cry with you!”

Other  netizens’ responses reflected the views of the court, as one Weibo user commiserated with Tang for a different reason:

[blockquote3] “…Tang Hui did not possess any strong evidence to prove that the two policemen were guilty. In addition, she unreasonably demanded that “all seven defendants must [receive] the death penalty” and also disturbed the public numerous times because of this. [I can] only sympathize with how she does not understand the law.”[/blockquote3]

What started as sheer sympathy for Tang soon became sobering thoughts toward China’s legal system, with netizens describing it as “unreasonable” and “shameless.” Bai Gu Lun Jin, a renowned freelance writer in China, solemnly stated on his Weibo: “What Tang Hui cries for is her daughter, what my heart cries for is the law…”

In addition, netizens were surprised by the tweet from People’s Daily, the top news source of the Chinese Communist Party. Commonly perceived as a nationalist voice of the Chinese government, People’s Daily seemed to have taken a different stance on Weibo with regards to the decision of Tang’s latest trial:

[blockquote3]“Having lost the trial, [she] covered her face and wept. Today, “Appeal Mother” Tang Hui has once again tugged the people’s heartstrings. This is [an expression of] sympathy towards a mother, but more so a concern for the common justice. The allure of the China Dream is not solely dependent on the greatness of a nation, but more so on the individual’s happiness and self-esteem. Mother Tang’s tears should not become the sore spot of the China Dream. [We are] expecting a just trial, expecting reform, [so that] the sunshine of the rule of law will bring warmth to everyone. Peace.”[/blockquote3]

In response, Chinese writer and historian, Zhang Lifan retweeted People’s Daily: “This time, the official Weibo of People’s Daily stood with the people. The extremely evil re-education through labor system does not need ‘reform,’ it should be abrogated at once.”

China’s labor camps and moving forward

Since the court’s latest decision, the people’s attention has shifted to a serious reevaluation of China’s re-education through labor system that lacks judicial oversight.

Under the current “re-education through labor” system in China, petty offenders can be imprisoned for up to four years in labor camps without a judicial hearing. Different from formal prison system, these camps are often used to persecute human rights activists and intellectuals that have expressed dissent at the government.

At the time when Tang’s case first reached the public, many people said that she would become the one who triggers the reform of China’s re-education through labor system. Since then, the cases of Ren Jianyu[5] and others have all been discussed similarly. However, half a year has passed since Tang’s last trial; re-education through labor still remains and now even Tang Hui has lost her case.

While some believe that Tang’s perseverance would eventually lead her to justice, many are now left more skeptical of China’s legal system by the decision on April 12. In addition, if the court had granted her compensation, then Tang would have created a precedent for former labor camp inmates to request compensation. It is dubious that the Chinese government is ready to accept the requests of former inmates plus the 190,000[6] some people that are still locked up in the 320 labor camps across China.

China Youth Daily journalist, Ye Tieqiao, highlighted the significance of Tang’s case on Weibo:

[blockquote3]“#Concerning the Tang Hui Case#: Observing the trial of Tang Hui’s case, [my] greatest feeling was that this was a verdict for a mother with strong self-respect. [As such], the court should have made its judgment with [equal] respect, though sadly, she never received support from the court. However, although on the same battlefield, looking through Weibo, she has won respect from an even broader platform, and allowed people to witness the strength of perseverance. This, perhaps, is the greatest meaning of today’s trial.  (April 12)” [/blockquote3]

Tang’s perseverance indeed serves as an inspiration for many others; however, one cannot ignore the fact that a public outcry on Weibo will not bring about any changes to the court’s decision. After all, most people on Weibo are not surprised by the decision and there seems to be a mutual understanding that simply appealing to a higher court will not render a different ruling. “This isn’t a country under rule of law, sister, I’m sorry that you had to live in China for so many years,” one user commented. When in China, one has to do as the Chinese do.

Updates on Tang

On April 19, Beijing News published an article with the latest updates on Tang and Yongzhou’s local government. The article stated that Tang’s constant appealing over the past six years has put significant pressure on the officials at the local level, as Yongzhou has a strident petition evaluation system that directly affects the fate of local government officials. In addition, although Tang has never solicited financial assistance, a local official from Fujiaqiao, Yongzhou revealed that local officials have spent approximately “millions” (one million yuan = 161,878 USD) to assist her financially. Therefore, they had hope that Tang would win her case as such an outcome would finally bring an end to her journey of appealing to higher courts.

Tang said that since returning home, many people have been attempting to persuade her to stop appealing, including local authorities. She said that she will follow the advice from her lawyer and that she will not appeal again after following through with the current legal procedures. Instead, she will return to her flower shop back home and lead a peaceful life.

The case seems to have finally come to a close, but not in the way that it should have ended. Tang’s defeat evidence of the country’s broken legal system and the failure of the government to protect its people. We may not hear from Yongzhou’s “Appeal Mom” again, but it won’t be long before another Tang Hui kneels in front of the local government offices and begs for justice.[7] As for the rest of China, what good is the China Dream if achieving it cannot even guarantee justice for the people?


[1] The picture of Tang Hui outside the courtroom can be seen here:http://bit.ly/YvBjsr

[2] Public-order cases deal with acts that interfere with the operations of society and the ability of people to function efficiently and are usually without direct victims. What Lele had experienced—human trafficking, rape, beating—should be categorized as violent crimes and crimes against a person.

[3] Yongzhou police officers reported that while in prison, Qin Xing had saved one of the inmates from committing suicide and that his sentence should be lessened given his “record of meritorious service.” Tang believed that Qin’s story was a fabrication and that the local police was trying to shield the defendant.

[4] Dou E is the name of the main character in the famous Chinese play Injustice to Dou E. Through her unyielding quest for justice and her eventual tragic death, the story exposes the dark side of the Yuan Dynasty as one plagued by corruption, injustice, and immorality.

[5] Ren Jianyu is a young Chinese government official who was sentenced to two years of re-education through labor in 2011 for speaking out against Bo Xilai and for posting messages online that promoted democracy.

[6] This estimate came from a United Nations Human Rights Council report from 2009. An electronic copy of the report can be accessed here:http://lib.ohchr.org/HRBodies/UPR/Documents/Session4/CN/A_HRC_WG6_4_L11_CHN_E.pdf

[7] Earlier in April 2013 in Guilin, Guang Xi Province, a 13-year-old girl was reported to be forced, threatened, and raped by a local police inspector; the five people involved in the case have not been tried or punished.


A Chinese language video of Tang Hui’s story can be viewed here.

 

Written by Juehao (Julie) Wu. Julie was an intern for the China Program at The Carter Center. She is a current third-year undergraduate student studying International Studies and Psychology at Emory University.

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2013/4/24

旧文章ID:15841

A Chinese Plan for Peace

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作者:Andrew Dirks  来源:US-China Perception Monitor

Xi Jinping surprised the international community last week by putting forth a four-point plan for peace between Israel and Palestine. Much of the reporting on this potential realignment of Chinese foreign policy has focused on the reasons why Beijing would make such a proposal at this time; reports have left out some important considerations, however, namely discussing  the advantages that China possesses in acting as a mediator between Jerusalem, Ramallah, and Gaza. While Xi’s peace plan largely reiterates proposals that have been the basis for American and European attempts to the resolve this conflict for decades, there are several advantages that China has over other players that could enable Beijing to finally cut through the Gordian Knot of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

The first advantage China has is stability in leadership. Barring unforeseen circumstances, Xi Jinping will be the President of the People’s Republic for the next decade, and while his successor will differ in personality, the underlying political principles will largely remain the same. This is in stark contrast to the efforts by the United States in mediating the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, where the change in administrations can completely change the dynamics on the ground. Recent history has shown these changes affecting the peace process, as President Clinton’s last ditch attempts to implement a peace deal during the waning weeks of his term where largely set aside by the incoming George W. Bush administration. Likewise, President Bush took up the Israeli-Palestinian peace process in the later part of his second term only to see President Obama pursue a foreign policy that has been dominated by his pivot to the Pacific, the Arab Spring uprisings, the ongoing civil war in Syria, and a potential conflict with Iran. With China as a major peace partner, there would be no need to hit the reset button with each change in leadership.

The second advantage China possesses in negotiating a peace between Israel and Palestine is China’s lack of an imperial history in the region. Unlike major EU members such as Britain and France, China has never directly controlled territory in Southwest Asia, and unlike the United States, China has never launched a pre-emptive war in the region. While the People’s Republic did provide material and ideological support to terrorist groups such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) during the 1960s and 1970s, China has enjoyed normal relations with Israel since 1992. This lack of an aggressive history in the Middle East could allow China to present itself as an impartial arbiter between the two sides. China’s diplomatic relations with ostracized nations such as Iran and Syria could provide an incentive for Israel to accept some Palestinian demands in exchange for China’s assistance in delaying Iranian nuclear ambitions, or dropping its recalcitrance in regards to United Nations and Arab League plans to end the Syrian Civil War.

The third advantage China has as a partner for peace is its lack of ideological component in regards to the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. Chinese civil society simply does not have lobbying and activist groups such as the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) or similar groups based in religion or political ideology that have had tremendous impacts on American attempts to forge a long-lasting peace in Israel. AIPAC and related organizations have constantly used their considerable influence and power to thwart efforts by the United States to hold Israel accountable for actions that violate international law and scuttle efforts for peace, most notably the continued construction of Israeli settlements in the West Bank. As seen in the recent confirmation battle over US Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel, lobbyist and public policy groups can disproportionately impact US foreign policy. Beijing would simply not have to grapple with independent groups blocking its foreign policy goals, or the blowback of public opinion in pursuing a peace proposal.

The reasons listed above are not meant to suggest that China will suddenly surpass the United States as the principal actor in negotiating an end to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but they do highlight some of the advantages that China has over the United States should it attempt to pursue a larger role in this critical arena of world affairs. China’s overtures could merely be an attempt to curry favor with oil producing nations in the Middle East, as it becomes a larger importer of oil to fuel its economic growth. The United States could still block new peace proposals in the UN Security Council, and there is no indication that the Netanyahu government in Jerusalem is interested in restarting the peace process. This being said, China would have little to lose by making a good faith attempt to solve the world’s most intractable conflict. Working towards a solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict would help change perceptions of Chinese foreign policy that is often criticized for supporting pariah states such as Sudan, North Korea, and Myanmar prior to the current reforms. No nation can truly afford to ignore China’s enormous economic growth and potential. Moving towards peace will help build a positive image for Beijing overseas beyond the economic realm.

Credits:

This article is written by Andrew S. Dirks. Andrew is an undergraduate history student at Georgia State University and a former intern for the China Program at The Carter Center.

Photo: China’s President Xi Jinping (R) and his Palestinian counterpart Mahmoud Abbas attend a signing ceremony at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing, May 6, 2013. REUTERS/Jason Lee (CHINA)

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2018/4/6

旧文章ID:15840

A Time of Confidence: China is the Future

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作者:Luzheng Song  来源:US-China Perception Monitor

Today, China has attained a level of prosperity and stability not seen since 1840. It has the best governing system to date, and compared to other major countries in the world, is the best-performing in terms of development. These facts lay the foundation for the Party’s spiritual guidelines as highlighted during the 18th Party Congress: ‘confidence in our road, our theory, and our system.’

A Horizontal Analysis Since 1840

The year 1840 marks a turning point in Chinese history. China, the former “central empire”, was forced into a global system dominated by Western imperial powers. Both the Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China that followed tried but failed to rescue China from the lowest point in the country’s long, renowned history by adjusting to this new historical reality. However, the entire Chinese nation deteriorated to the point that threat of national implosion was imminent.

China signed 1,175 treaties with other nations after the 1840 Opium War, most of which were unequal,These treaties involved ceding of territories, war reparations,  stationing of foreign troops, tariffs, and judicial rights. Imperial forces from around the world bullied and humiliated China, carving up China among themselves with no regard to the feeble Qing government’s sovereignty.

The Qing government’s submission to these unfair treaties led to the unequal treatment of the Chinese people, an example of which is the Chinese Exclusion Act pass by the U.S. Congress in 1882 which discriminated against Chinese immigrants. However, China managed to remain a nominally sovereign and independent nation under the Qing government, with intermittent periods of peace between incessant wars and domestic unrest.

The Republic of China, on the other hand, fared even worse. Its 37 years (1912-1949) of rule brought China neither independence nor unity, not to mention the widespread poverty and loss of dignity that continued during this period. The financial system broke down, warlords continued fighting, civil wars and foreign invasions continued, and corruption was rampant. The Republic of China not only failed to solve any of the challenges left behind by the Qing Dynasty—extreme poverty, foreign invasion and threats, division of the nation and dominance of the military by warlords—it aggravated them.

In the first years of the Republic of China, China was presented with three paths for its future: First, to follow Yuan Shih-kai’s autocratic monarchy; second, to pursue Liang Qichao’s constitutional monarchy; and third, to take on Sun Yat-sun’s revolutionary path. However, none of the three leaders managed to realize their visions, and China lingered on in a dead end.

China’s inferior status improved little even after becoming a victor in World Wars I & II. When World War II ended, the three allied powers—the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom—continued to infringe on China’s sovereignty to the extent that all three countries had a military presence in China and enjoyed extraterritoriality.

It was the People’s Republic of China, established in 1949 by the Chinese Communist Party, that finally rescued China from its impoverished and feeble past, reestablishing China’s long-lost independence for the first time since 1840.

China in the Past Sixty Years

The People’s Republic of China has existed for over sixty years. From a historical perspective, today’s China has already transcended both the Han and Tang Dynasties. A horizontal comparison between China and the other two Asian powers—Japan and India—further illustrates the advances China has made.

Japan completed industrialization before World War II and became one of the five major powers in the world. It was able to retain its advantages in both technology and human resource despite its devastating defeat. Moreover, the country enjoyed huge peace dividends under American military protection and preferential terms of trade from the United States due to the Cold War. During the 60 years following the war, Japan was able to develop free of wars and civil unrests.

However, Japan now finds itself in a severe debt crisis and is experiencing political chaos. It has undergone several cabinet reshuffles and virtually lost the ability to govern. The 2011 nuclear meltdown also found the then prime minister Naoto Kan unable to deal with the crisis, leaving the refugees unattended months after the disaster. Furthermore, the current prime minister Yoshihiko Noda recently had the political insensibility to challenge China’s sovereignty by nationalizing the Diaoyu Islands.

India, on the other hand, became an independent country in 1947 and inherited British democracy, the rule of law, a constitutional system and the English language. The country lagged behind China even after the latter experienced ten mournful years during the Cultural Revolution, a gap that inceased exponentially after China’s reform and opening up began in 1978. Today, compared with China, India is more populated, less urbanized and less regulated in terms of public hygiene. India also has higher child mortality rates and widespread hunger. Moreover, both Japan and India lag behind China in terms of gender equality.

As for the United States, it is now struggling with the worst financial crisis ever experienced since the 1930s, with the amount of its foreign debt weighing more than 160 trillion dollars. Many medium-sized and small cities went bankrupt during the crisis, and even some state governments almost went broke. Since 1960, the US has raised its debt ceiling 78 times, averaging almost twice a year. The so-called debt ceiling has long been defunct.

During the twenty years since the Cold War, the United States has committed a series of strategic mistakes, squandering its soft and hard power. Domestically, the U.S. has suffered from the Internet bubble, the real estate bubble and the subprime crisis. Internationally, it has made one strategic mistake after another by waging wars overseas. Such a state poses a stark contrast with China, which has been making advances in leaps and bounds over the same period. The U.S. has lost its former crown to China as the world’s largest manufacturer (the first time this has happened since it surpassed the U.K. a hundred years ago), largest automobile market, and the country with the most patent applications. China has also overtaken the U.S. in terms of contribution to global economy, accounting for 50 percent of the economic growth in 2009.

One can interpret the American political system from many angles, although some comments by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter are quite thought-provoking. At the International Economic and Financial Conference held in Sanya in 2012, Carter expressed his malcontent with the anti-China rhetoric while acknowledging that they are simply part of the American political life.

While Carter’s comments concern only certain phenomena, others in the U.S. have taken a critical stance on the American democracy itself. Conservative commentator David Brooks made the following comments in the New York Times: people today have unlimited faith in the notion of democracy without realizing that the founding fathers of this country talked very little about democracy itself and built the nation on republican principles. The main difference between democracy and republicanism is that democracy places unlimited faith in the character and judgement of the people whereas the believers in a republic are highly suspicious of the character and judgment of the people and erect institutions and barriers to contain the potential damage the fickle human nature can cause.

In contrast to the United States’ focus on liberal corporatism, Europe follows a welfare-oriented model characterized by a gigantic bureaucracy, an increasingly burdensome income redistribution system (through taxation), and government control over enterprises. However, such a model has also become unsustainable in face of the global economic crisis. An example is the debt-stricken Greece which has seen its  unemployment skyrocket, living standards deteriorate, and suicide rate rise to an all-time high.

In the face of the unprecedented challenges posed by the economic crisis, the West has failed to come up with a clear and focused blueprint for reforms, nor has it seen forceful leaders like Margaret Thatcher or Ronald Reagan in the 1980s arise to push through far-reaching reforms. The societies remain in a chaotic and lost state, undermining the Western elites’ confidence in their political and economic system.

Characteristics of the China Model

The West has repeatedly questioned the sustainability of the China model throughout its course of development. Whether China’s rise to power can be sustained under its current model can only be verified by history. Meanwhile, the current crisis has already demonstrated that the Western model cannot be sustained and is in dire need for comprehensive and far-reaching reform.

A look at history leads us to the conclusion that the current system is not only the most successful one for China in the past century, it is also the best-performing system the world has seen in the past 60 years. How should one interpret the Chinese system?

Since the founding of the People’s Republic, China has developed, through a series of political reforms, a model with Chinese characteristics in terms of power transfer and checks-and-balances. These characteristics stand in stark contrast to the troubled West and turbulent Arab world, which is currently undergoing revolutions. The West regularly rotates both its leaders and political parties, whereas China only changes its leaders without changing the party. The Arab societies change neither. So far, the Chinese system has been the best performing for it is a flexible system with a high degree of continuity, whereas both the Western and the Arab systems sacrifice one at the expense of the other. The need for political reform in both the West and the Arab world is pressing, whereas China is undertaking the reforms more as a precautionary measure.

China’s current system is the result of a series of lasting, internally-generated evolutions based on Chinese cultural and political traditions. Take power transfer as an example, the transfer of leadership in China resembles the ancient practice of emperors abdicating and giving the crown to a designated successor, while breaking free from the limits of lifelong tenures. China inherited its political tradition by “recognizing the Party’s rule, selecting the leaders from all over the country, and cultivating them over a long period of time”, institutionally innovated by ‘setting limit on the leaders’ age and tenure’, and borrowed from the West in regularly replacing leaders. Such system allows China to draft out long-term strategic plans under the leadership of one party and select the most talented politicians at a low cost through nationwide selection and cultivation, while regular transfer of leadership introduces new blood and prevents the rise of a strongman.

China is the driving engine for the world economy, it has imported $750 billion worth of goods every year since joining the WTO, and it has written off huge amounts of debt owed by Third World countries while providing large sums of economic aid. However, in the eyes of the Chinese, China’s principal contribution to the world is that it has demonstrated a new and successful model of development. No wonder Thomas L. Friedman, the New York Times columnist sighed with concern: “I was very relunctant to tell my daughter that she must go to China to see the future.”

Apparently, just as Western elites are starting to lose faith, China is welcoming its own age of confidence.

The original Chinese article was written by Luzheng Song

Translated by Xiaoyuan Li. Xiaoyuan is a volunteer for the China Program at The Carter Center.

Photo: Yu Yuan Area, China. From INC.com



来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2013/5/29

旧文章ID:15839

Backlash Against Egypt Graffiti Culprit Reveals Deeper Insecurities—A Case Study Analysis Through Weibo

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作者:Derek Ha  来源:US-China Perception Monitor

The last week of May was a rough one for teenager Ding Jinhao, who became the new favorite punching bag of thousands of Chinese netizens. On a vacation to Egypt, the youth had carved “Ding Jinhao was here” in Chinese on the walls of the ancient Luxor Temple. Another tourist posted a photo of his vandalism onto Weibo, China’s version of Twitter, on May 24.

Ding’s appalled compatriot wrote: “This was my saddest moment in Egypt. I was so embarrassed I wanted to hide my face…We tried using tissues to wipe away this shame, but it was useless, and we couldn’t use water. This is a 3,500 year old site!”

The picture went viral, garnering over 1,400 likes, 18,000 comments, and 96,000 retweets within five days.[1] Weibo users, not known for being forgiving or sympathizing with wrongdoers, were quick to not only criticize the culprit, but also discover and publicize his identity, school, and city of residence. Much of the vitriol was about how Ding made China lose face. A Beijing advertising agency commented on its official Weibo account:

[blockquote3] I feel shame knowing that it was my countryman who did this.[/blockquote3]

The intensity of the backlash suggests that it is more than just another online bandwagon. China’s people and government are greatly concerned about how they are perceived by outsiders. There is constant, palpable worry about whether the country is considered modern or cultured by others. Some of the Weibo posts responding to Ding’s actions were more introspective than hostile: “Whether you admit it or not, most of us are no better than Ding Jinhao,” sighed Miao Fei Xia, a Guangzhou resident. A netizen with the username Riding a Pig Through China is My Dream said: “Why is it that only Chinese tourists do this sort of thing? We need to rethink how we educate our people.”

These remarks highlight a deep-seated insecurity despite China’s successes in recent decades. Amidst the increases in their economic and political power around the world, many Chinese still see their people as lagging behind in the intangible elements of modernity, such as sophistication, etiquette, and tastefulness. Visit any major Chinese city, and it quickly becomes apparent that one of the key buzzwords in today’s China is wenming, meaning “civilized.”

"One

One small step forward, one big step for civilization.

Signs in public restrooms like the one above declare that standing close to urinals (to keep them cleaner) is the wenming thing to do. Announcements on buses inform passengers that letting pregnant women or the elderly sit first is the sign of a wenming society. The media instructs people on what is and isn’t wenming behavior. On May 29, Jiefang Daily, the official newspaper of the Communist Party’s Shanghai committee, posted this story through Weibo: “An old woman in Shanghai was on the subway with her grandson, who stood on his seat to look outside. She placed some tissues on the seat first and said, ‘Don’t move your feet around and get it dirty.’ Passengers who board without buying tickets and litter all over the train, are you feeling ashamed?”

The preoccupation with being wenming is partly driven by the government. After the Ding Jinhao incident, the China National Tourism Administration issued guidelines on how to behave in a wenming manner when travelling abroad. Among other things, they ask Chinese tourists to avoid being overly loud, wait in lines patiently, and follow local rules.[2] Another example is the “10 Do’s and 10 Don’ts” that were plastered throughout Beijing during the run-up to the 2008 Olympics. Do’s included obeying traffic regulations and keeping the city clean, while spitting and “running wildly” were discouraged.[3]

There is a contradiction in how China sees itself relative to other countries. On one hand, it is a proud nation, particularly after the economic reforms of the past three decades. On April 1, the People’s Daily ran a front-page editorial stating that rather than walk “the old path of Western modernization,” China pursues a superior model based on the people’s “extraordinary struggle” and “thousands of years of civilized glory.”[4] On the other hand, the reaction to Ding and the wenming movement show that in some ways, the Chinese still view their country as backwards. They place great importance on following international norms, including details such as not defacing historical relics. Moreover, many Chinese idealize the West. In a 2011 survey of China’s upper class, nearly one in two respondents were considering moving to the US for better education, healthcare, and overall lifestyle.[5] Right or wrong, they believed that in the West, living standards are higher, schools are better, governments are more reliable, and people are more civilized

Ding Jinhao’s misdeed revealed a side of China’s relationship with the rest of the world that outsiders rarely see. Much of the recent China-related news has been about territorial spats or cyber espionage. However, beyond the image of an increasingly powerful, bold China is a more complex struggle between confidence and conformity, pride and uncertainty.

 

[1] The original tweet, including the image and statistics, can be seen here: http://weibo.com/1440641483/zyfhP0kac

[2] The full guidelines can be found here: http://guoqing.china.com.cn/2013-05/28/content_28953264_2.htm

[3] The “10 Do’s and 10 Don’ts” can be found here: http://www.baike.com/wiki/《迎奥运+学法律+十要十不要》

[4] Read the Carter Center’s translation of the editorial here: http://chinaelectionsblog.net/?p=21399

[5] An article summarizing the report can be found here: http://news.yahoo.com/top-chinese-wealthys-wish-list-leave-china-065826880.html
This article is written by Derek Ha. Derek is an intern for the China Program at the Carter Center. He is a fourth year undergraduate student at Pomona College majoring in International Relations.

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2013/5/31

旧文章ID:15838

Marching West: China’s New Geostrategy

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作者:Roger Moore  来源:US-China Perception Monitor

As China becomes an increasingly important player in the international community, there are questions about how the country should exert its burgeoning economic and military power. Although attention is mostly directed towards the South and East China Seas, where several hot spots threaten to undermine regional stability, there are some influential voices in China’s foreign policy establishment that have begun advocating for greater attention to the areas beyond China’s western borders, namely Central Asia and the Middle East. Coming on the heels of America’s ‘pivot’ to Asia, this new strategy, known as “Marching West,” potentially represents a new shift in Chinese geopolitical thinking.

The idea of Marching West, recently espoused by Wang Jisi, a famous academic at Peking University, offers several compelling benefits for China and its future trajectory in the international arena. Most importantly for Sino-US relations, it presents a potential avenue for future cooperation between the two countries that is often missing in the zero-sum environment of South and East Asia. While big issues such as Taiwan and America’s naval presence in the Asia-Pacific region will remain delicate problems in the foreseeable future, Central Asia and the Middle East are home to a host of issues on which the two sides can find agreement. These include combating terrorism, resolving the Israeli-Palestinian impasse, ending the Syrian conflict, and finding a solution to Iran’s nuclear program.[i] Many Americans may look askance at this extension of China’s global reach, but it is a pragmatic solution to resolving the problems in the region, especially in light of America’s desire to reduce its presence and China’s increasing ability to make an impact further beyond its borders.

Additionally, if both sides are truly interested in avoiding conflict and encouraging peaceful coexistence, then Marching West may increase the chances of this goal becoming a long-term reality. To the east and south of China’s borders, America has painstakingly created a hub-and-spokes system of bilateral agreements that have effectively solidified the country’s presence in the region. Despite China’s unease with this arrangement, there is little chance of it disappearing anytime soon. Central Asia, however, presents a rather different scenario relatively free from American influence. Since the implosion of the Soviet Union, the region has essentially found itself outside any superpower’s sphere of influence, creating an opportunity for China to fill the void and establish the terms of engagement.[ii] Even if America was interested in establishing a leading presence in the region after the war in Afghanistan winds down, many experts believe this is no longer a possibility. [iii] On the other hand, China has become the foremost investor for many countries, including Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, as well as the primary destination for their exports.[iv]

Although Marching West is not official Party doctrine—nor will it be anytime soon due to the tensions in East and South Asia—there is evidence that the country is trying to become a bigger player with its neighbors to the west. Most recently, at the beginning of May, China hosted both Israeli and Palestinian leaders to discuss a host of issues, including the Israeli-Palestinian question.[v] The Chinese foreign ministry publicly announced its willingness to facilitate a meeting between the countries’ leaders, although this was more of a formality than any real attempt at bringing them together. Nevertheless, it does show a willingness on the part of China to take a more active role in a conflict in which it has traditionally remained silent.

Similarly, China has begun pouring billions of dollars into many countries’ economies, including war-torn Iraq and Afghanistan. One may question the motives behind China’s actions, but there is little doubt that such investment increases China’s presence in the region at a level unforeseen before. In Afghanistan, many see China as the country’s largest foreign investor, driven largely by a $3.5 billion project intended to exploit what is touted to be the largest undeveloped copper mine in the world.[vi] Likewise, China has recently sought to increase its ties with Pakistan, promising to set up a so-called economic corridor to further connect their economies.[vii] If the corridor promises become reality, it would not only significantly improve Pakistan’s economy, but also secure greater prosperity for China’s underdeveloped western provinces.

Although Marching West offers many benefits for the US, China, and others, it will certainly encounter many obstacles. For one thing, other influential countries in the region, most notably Russia and India, will likely be suspicious of China’s actions in their backyards. Perhaps this explains why Xi Jinping and Li Keqiang opted to take their first respective foreign trips to Russia and India. Secondly, increasing involvement in Central Asia could make China vulnerable to Islamist extremists in its western provinces, most notably Xinjiang, which borders Afghanistan and is already home to many separatist groups. Lastly, America will remain suspicious of any efforts by China to expand its global presence.

Despite these obstacles, Marching West should be considered a serious alternative for China’s geostrategic thinking. Not only does it offer benefits for many different countries, but it may also reduce a future collision between the US and China. Although South and East Asia will remain priorities for China, it would be wise to consider how the country can maximize its potential as a continental land power in Central Asia and the Middle East.

 

Written by Roger Moore. Roger is a graduate student at Georgia State University, where he studies international and comparative politics.

Photo: From Foreign Policy

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2018/4/6

旧文章ID:15837

A Good Start: Positive Notes from the First Obama-Xi Summit

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作者:Yang Fu  来源:US-China Perception Monitor

The results of the first Obama-Xi summit were nothing dramatic. No treaties were produced, no communiqués were presented. Both leaders appeared together only briefly: for a press conference on the first day and a stroll around the grounds of the California estate on the second day. Nevertheless, the meetings between Obama and Xi may have breathed new life into US-China relations.

Both the US and Chinese delegation emerged from talks optimistic and enthusiastic. Obama described the progress they had made as “constructive” and “terrific.” Xi labelled the meetings “in-depth, sincere and candid.” Later, National Security Advisor Tom Donilon spoke to the press in upbeat and animated spirits.

From the summit, both leaders acknowledged that North Korea must denuclearise. They agreed that the US and China needed to improve military-to-military communications in order to improve US-China relations. Obama and Donilon emphasized that continued intellectual property theft from China would hurt the US-China relationship. Although little to no progress was made on the issue of cyber security, both sides chose not to linger on this contentious topic. Instead, Obama broadly categorized the issue as an international one, saying that they were “not issues that are unique to the US-China relationship.” Xi called cyber-security “a positive area of cooperation between China and the US.”

The one tangible commitment that came out of the two-day summit was an agreement to cooperate on reducing hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs. A White House Press release announced that the US and China will use the tools of the Montreal Protocol to lower consumption and production of this greenhouse gas in an attempt to reign in climate change.

The summit certainly displayed the right kind of attitude. A willingness to work together on issues like international security and climate change can strengthen the US-China relationship. President Obama closed his press conference remarks with hope and determination. “What I’m very encouraged about is that both President Xi and myself recognize we have a unique opportunity to take the U.S.-China relationship to a new level. And I am absolutely committed to making sure that we don’t miss that opportunity.”[1]

The question remains, however, if both leaders can carry this attitude over to tough issues like cyber security. Whether or not Obama and Xi will take concrete steps towards building international agreements and legal frameworks to deal with cyber threats remains to be seen.

Only when both leaders manage to take their bilateral relationship beyond positive rhetoric, to the level of actual policy-making, can we begin to speak of a new era in US-China relations.

Written by Yang Fu. Yang is a graduate student at The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University.

Photo: US President Barack Obama welcomes Chinese President Xi Jinping for their bilateral meeting at the Annenberg Retreat at Sunnylands in Rancho Mirage, California, on June 7, 2013.  From Agence France-Presse/Getty Images

来源时间:2018/4/6   发布时间:2013/6/10

旧文章ID:15836